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About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at|http: //books .google .com/I HARVARD UNIVERSITY LIBRARY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION rTT f i I l\\\ mRVARD imiVIIMfff r\ f fiBftiyiATe fiCHOOL OF £0Ut9(T)O# ) n <7 - UBRARV No a(o-52> Harvard University, Library of tira Graduate School DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN. 1921. No. 26 i EDUCATIONAL SURVEY r \\ OF ELIZABETH CITY NORTH CAROLINA i' I Summary of Conclusions and Recommendations A DIGEST OF THE REPORT OF A SURVEY OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. MADE AT THE REQUEST OF THE BOARD OF SCHOOL TRUSTEES, UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFHCE 1921 ADDITIONAL COPIES 07 THIS PUBUCATIOX ICAT BB FBOCUBBD FROM THE SUPBBXNTENDBirT 07 DOCUMENTS OOVBBHlf SNT FBIXrnNQ 077ICE WA8BINOTON, D. C. ▲T ft CENTS PER COPY :'V Harvard University, Library of M(\e Graduate SchoQl of Education CONTENTS, Page. I. Introductory 5 Members of the comnussion 5 From Btireau of Education 5 From the outside 6 The field work 5 n. A building program 6 Number of children of school age 6 School congestion 7 1. White schools 7 2. Negro schools 8 Lack of modem school facilities v 10 Changed social and industrial conditions demand changes in the schools 10 A comprehensive building program needed 11 The work-study-play plan of organization 12 A building program on the basis of the work-study-play plan 13 Plan! 13 Plan II 14 III. Organization and administration 15 Apathy of the board of aldermen 15 Interest of the board of education in school affairs w 16 Powers and duties of the school board 18 The superintendent's report 20 Teachere' salaries 22 Fonnal examinations 24 Cost of maintaining the schools 24 IV. School census and enrollment 26 Age-grade distribution 27 Per cent of distribution by grades 30 Holding power of the schools 31 The schools carry an unnecessary load 32 V. The elementarj' schools 33 The curriculum situation 33 Equipment problem 35 Organization problem 36 The supervision problem 37 The instruction problem 38 Kindergartens 39 VI. The high school 39 II. Hom^ economics 41 } II. Manual training 42 3 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, NORTH CAROLINA. I. INTRODUCTORY. On July 20, 1920, the board of school trustees invited the Com- missioner of Education to undertake a survey of the schools of Elizabeth City, with the understanding that the cost would not exceed $1,500, and that the cost of the survey would be underwritten by the Elizabeth City Chamber of Commerce. MEMBERS OF THE SURVEY COMMISSION. The members of the commission appointed by the commissioner to make the survey, and to report to him their findings and recom- mendations, are as follows : FROM THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. Dr. WilUam T. Bawden, Assistant to the Commissioner, director of the survey. Mrs. Alice Barrows Fernandez, Specialist in InduBtriai and Economic Relations in Education. Mr. Walter S. Deffenbaugh, Specialist in Education in Villages and Towns. Mrs. Henrietta W. Calvin, Specialist in Home Economics. MisB JuKa Wade Abbot, Specialist in Kindergarten Education. FROM OUTSIDE THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. Dr. Charles G. Maphis, Professor of Education, University of Virginia, Charlottes- ville, Va. Dr. Thomas Alexander, Professor of Elementary Education,, Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. THE FIELD WORK. On July 24-25 Commissioner Claxton and two members of the coirl- mission made a study of the buildings and gathered data upon which the reconmiendations concerning the building program were based. This part of the report was submitted to the board July 30, 1920. The remainder of the field work was done during the month of November, and included an aggregate of about 70 days. On Friday evening, January 7, 1921, the director of the survey presented an outline of the report, and discussed the conclusions and recommendations with the board in Elizabeth City. As rapidly as the work could be completed, the full text of the report was fur- nished to the board in manuscript, the last chapters being mailed on July 7, 1921. 5 6 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. n. A BUILDING PROGRAM. The schools of Elizabeth City are badly congested. It is important that the city undertake a building program which will not only relieve present congestion but also provide for increase in enrollment over a period of years. In drder to do this it is necessary to deter- mine (1) how many children there are of school age in the city; (2) what is the present number of children enrolled in school and what is the present school congestion — that is, how many children are without adequate seating accommodations; (3) what has been the rate of increase in the school population over a period of years; and (4) the appropriation that will be necessary in order to give children not only seating accommodations but modern school facilities. NUMBER OF CHILDREN OF SCHOOL AGE. According to the school census, there were 2,997 children between the ages of 6 and 21 in Elizabeth City in 1919-20. Eliminating those between the ages of 18 and 20, there were apparently 2,789 children of school age in the city. Of this number, 1,641 were white children and 1,148 were negro (see Table 1). But although there were 2,789 children of school age, only 2,202 were enrolled in the public schools. Of these, 1,425 were white and 777 were negro. In other words, there were 216 white children of school age who were not in public school and 371 negro children who were not in public school; that is, 21 per cent of all children of school age were not enrolled in public school (see Table 2) . Table 1. — VliUlr en of school census age; enroUvient: average atte.uhnce, 1919-20. White. Colored. Total white Children of school census age. 1 Male. 1 Fe- male. Totsl. Male. Fe- male. 100 325 198 51 Total. 207 594 347 and col- ored. Children 8 to 7 years old. inclusive 134 Children 8 to ISyears old . inclusive 1 368 Cmldren 14 to if years old, inclusive 1 278 Children 18 to 20 years old. inclusive ' 63 145 403 313 62 779 771 591 125 107 260 149 32 1 486 1,865 938 206 "* 1 - , Total census 6 to 21 843 C:3 1,766 557 674 1,231 ' 2,997 Enrollment of children 6 to 21 668 757 1,425 429 822 634 1.132 353 225 215 150 424 273 249 777 2,202 Enrollment of children 8 to 13, InclnnlTe 1 393 Average daily attendance, 6 to 21 ; 538 498 - 1,320 464 , 1.687 Average daily attendance, 8 to 13, inclasive. . 350 1 380 , 1 1 730 272 i;oo2 EDUCATIONAL STTBYBY OP ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. NaiDM at school. I '1 \.^ Qrand tots] (includ- ing chUdrBD Ir Dormal school)... ir white (chools. v i vhite taiohen nod 1 G ItB shHod loicher hava been aneBged 'w u«xt year. Obviously, any adequate building program must provide for these children whom the public school is imder obligation to care for, and who would be far more likely to attend if the school accommodations were adequate and modem. Ou the other hand, if they do not enter school even when new buildings are provided, then the building pro- gram proposed will provide for an increase in enrollment over more than five years. SCHOOL CONGESTION. 1. WHITE BCHOOLS. In 1919-20 there were 1,425 white children enrolled in sdiool, or 37 classes. There are two white school buildings — the Primary, which houses grades from 1 to 3, inclusive, and the High School, which houses grades from 4 to 7, inclusive, and 8 to 11, inclusive. In the primary school there are 16 classes but only 13 regular claas- rooms. In the high school there are 16 regular classrooms and 21 dasses. In other words, in these two buildings there are eight more classes than there are classrooms available. The rate of increase has been about one and one-half classes per year for the last five years. For example, in 1914-15 there were 8 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. 1,140 children enrolled, while in 1919-20 there were 1,425, or an increase of 285 children, approximately eight classes. The school authorities have made every effort to meet the increasing congestion, but they have had an almost impossible task. They have been compelled to use basement rooms which never should have been used as classrooms; comers of the auditorium have been partitioned off to make room for classes; and it is understood that even the auditorium stage has been pressed into service as a classroom. But the situation is worse than these facts would indicate, for although there are 13 rooms in the primary school, they can not be included in the building plans, since they are really not fit for school purposes. The inadequate lighting alone should prohibit their use. In fact, if the parents of the children realized that permitting their children to study in the badly lighted, overcrowded rooms of the primary school was a menace to the eyesight and health of the chil- dren, there is no question but that they would insist that the school be abandoned and adequate appropriations made for school accom- modation. To sum up the situation in the white schools, there are 36 classes of children and only 16 available classrooms (when the primary school is eliminated), i. e., there are 20 classes without adequate seating accommodations. Moreover, an increase of between seven and eight classes, about 280 children, over the next five years must be provided for. Furthermore, the 216 children of school age not now in school should be provided for. In other words, taking the children now enrolled, 1,425, those of school age out of school, 216, and the anticipated increase during the next five years, 280, it will be necessary for Elizabeth City to so plan its building program that 48 classes of children — 1,921 children — ^may be provided for in the coming bond issue. If this is done, not only will present congestion be relieved but adequate provision made for a period of five years. 2. NEOBO SCHOOLS. According to the statistical report of the superintendent of schools for 1914-15 there were 585 children enrolled in the Negro schools in the first five grades. (See Table 3.) In 1919-20 there were 777 children enrolled in seven grades, and of this number 595 were in the three pubUc schools, while the remainder were in the Negro normal school, which takes children in the practice school department from grade 1 through 8. (See Table 4.) The increase in the public and normal schools of children in grades 1 to 8 was 192 in five years, or at the rate of about one class a year. EDUCATIONAL StTtVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, K. C. 9 Table 3. — IhiroUment by grades andraee$in the year 1914^15.^ Bnrollment. First o&de SecooagtftdB.... Third grade Fomtii grade Fifth gride Sixth 0Bde Screntn grade Bt^h grade Ktath {pnade Tenth grade Eleventh grade Total Number compl^ixig course Nuni' Aver- ber. age age. 224 7 169 8 136 10 144 11 155 12 104 14 70 16 76 15 35 16 26 17 12 ^^ 1,140 13 12 17 Boys en- rolled. 114 87 60 74 63 47 24 38 11 10 3 Num- ber. 531 3 Colored. Aver- age age. 352 98 100 30 11 I 585 10 8 10 12 13 14 11 13 Boys en- rolled. 147 60 82 10 5 244 4 Table 4. — Enrollment by grades and races m the year 1919-20,^ Snroilmait. White. Num- ber. First nade SeoQDd grade... Third grade Fourth grade... nilh grade Sfarthoade.... Seventh grade.. Eighth grade... Ninth grade Tenth grade.... Bteventb grade. 244 192 171 165 168 122 109 103 64 59 28 Boys en- rolled. 127 100 84 81 75 67 48 40 30 6 ! Colored. Num- ber. 393 107 125 59 39 36 19 Total Number completing coarse. 1,425 21 668 6 I 777 Boys en- rolled. 198 81 60 17 16 14 4 860 1 From statistical report of city superintendent, Elisabeth City, N. G There is not only bad congestion in the Negro schools, but the buildings themselves are unfit for school purposes. In 1919-20, in grades 1 to 5, inclusive, were 595 Negro children attending school in tliree wooden frame structures. In Sawyer town school 173 children go to school in two rooms. One room has 27 double benches and the other has 28. The benches are old and scarred. In one room 54 children attend in the morning and in another 54 in afternoon. The building is nothing but a frame structure in such bad repair that pasteboard is tacked over a portion of a window where the pane has been broken. In Cale School there are 224 children in four rooms. In one room there are 31 double benches; in another, 30; in another, 29; and in the fourth, 22. In Shannon Street school there are 198 children. One room has 17 double seats, another 20, another 24}, another 23, and there is also a chapel, which is one long room with 6192^-21 2 10 EDUCATIONAL. SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. a platform. All these buildings should be abandoned, for they are not fit for school use. LACK OF MODERN SCHOOL FACIUTIES. But there is not only great congestion in both the white and Negro schools, but also there are almost none of the modem school facilities, such as auditoriums, gymnasium, shops, laboratories, drawing and music rooms — ^facilities which are now recognized as essential in any modem school system and which it is necessary to include in an adequate building program. There are in the white schools one auditorium, no gymnasium, no shops, one cooking room, and one laboratory with very little equipment, no drawing room, no musie room, and no library. CHANGED SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS DEMAND CHANGES IN THE SCHOOLS. It is often difficult for men and women who were brought up in the country a generation ago to realize the necessity of providing these facilities for children living in cities. In the olden days it made little difference that the school buildings consisted only of classrooms for studying the three R*s. In those days the children had plenty of opportunity for wholesome work and play, w^hich, educationally, were just as important for them as study. There is such a common tendency to identify '^schools'' and '^ education" that it is important to emphasize the fact that education has always consisted of work and study and play, and that children must not be deprived of any of these three elements in their education if they are to grow in health and strength and develop initiative, intelligence, and the ability to think for themselves. Fifty years ago the environment of the average boy and girl fur- nished an education in wholesome activities that developed intel- ligence, initiative, and industrious habits. But during the past half century has come the growth of the modern city, until now half the population of the country is concentrated in cities, and the city with its overcrowding, its mills and factories, and office buildings, which gradually go up on the vacant lots, is depriving children of the opportunity for the healthy, wholesome work and play which are essential elements in their education. The city home, whether in a large or small city, is very unlike the farm with its many necessitie3^ for ''learning by doing.'' It offers few educational opportunities in the way of healthful work which develops the ability to think by attacking problems to be solved. There is no planting or harvesting to be done; few if any animals to be taken care of; and it is a rare city home that has a workshop or laboratory. Yet children until recently have received much of their education through the oppor- tunity to handle tools, to take care of/ animals, and to experiment /' f \ I EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. 0. 11 in making and using things. But the city not only fails to educate children in the right direction; it educates them in the wrong direc- . tion, for the street, with its dangers to the physical and moral life of the children, too often becomes their only playground. And street play means education not in health and strength and wholesome living but precocious education in all the vicious side of a city's life. For these reasons it has come to be recognized that the city school must not only supply the opportunity for study in good classrooms under wholesome conditions, but it must also return to the children the opportunity for the helpful work and play which the home can no longer supply. It must provide playgrounds and shops and laboratories and drawing and music rooms, as well as classrooms, where they may be kept wholesomely busy all day. For Elizabeth City to plan a building program on the basis of providing merely classrooms for her school population and to ignore her obligation to furnish such modem facilities as shops, laboratories, and nature- study rooms would be to fail in her duty to the rising generation and to the best interests of the citv. It is said that America is the land of equal opportunity in education. This, however, does not mean opportunity for uniform education, but opportunity for the develop- ment of the varied gifts of many individuals. Democratic educa- tion means variety of opportunity in accordance with the needs of the individual. If Elizabeth City does not give this variety of oppor- tunity in work and study and play to the children of all its people, then it is failing to tap the reservoirs of power for its coming citizen- ship. Moreover, it is laying up trouble for itself in the future, for nothing is more serious for any community than to have the rising generation feel balked in their power of self-expression and attain- ment. A COMPREHENSIVE BUILDING PROGRAM NEEDED. It is obvious from the foregoing that Elizabeth City needs a building program which will reUeve present congestion, provide for an increase in enrollment for at least five years, and at the same time provide the modem educational facilities, such as auditoriums, playgrounds, shops, and laboratories. To do this will involve considerable ex- penditure and careful planning. There are two chief methods of meeting the situation. The first method would attempt to solve the situation by the usual procedure of adding classrooms without changing the traditional school organization. All children would be expected to be in school seats at iJie same time, and if provision were made for special activi- * ties, such as shops or cooking rooms, the classrooms would remain vacant when such facilities were in use. If such special facilities were provided, therefore, they would have to be in addition to a classroom for every class. 12 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. Let US consider the cost of meeting school congestion and growth — in the white schools, for example — on the basis of the traditional type of school organization. As has been pointed out, it will be necessary, in order to take care of present enrollment and provide for growth in the white schools to make provision for 48 classes. The prunary school should be aban- doned. That leaves only the high school, with 16 regular classrooms ; therefore it would be necessary to erect a building with 32 classrooms in order to provide for the 48 classes. The cost of a classroom imit at the present time is $16,000. This includes the cost of auditorium and gymnasium. A 32-classroom building would therefore cost $512,000. This amount, however, would not funush any of the modem school facilities, such as shops and laboratories. Therefore to provide these facilities would mean an additional expense. Elizabeth City is not peculiar in respect to her school congestion situation. Cities all over the country, even before the war, were having the greatest difficulty in meeting the increase in school en- rollment. The rapid growth of population makes the congestion and financial problems extremely difficult W solution on the traditional plan of a reserved seat for every child. To keep pace with growth, therefore, merely on the basis of adding classrooms where they are needed at a given time, presents both administrative and financial difficulties. But when to this problem is added the obligation to provide the other necessary facilities, such as shops and laboratories, the problem assumes formidable proportions. Indeed, were this plan the only alternative, the situation which the board of school trustees is now facing would be a discouraging one. Fortunately, however, there is another way out of the difficulty. THE WORK-STUDY-PLAY PLAN OF ORGANIZATION. A second possible method of solving the building problem of Eliza- beth City is what is commonly known as the '* work-study-play plan," now in operation in some 30 or 40 cities in the country. This plan developed in an attempt to solve the peculiar problem created by a modem city. It grew out of recognition of the fact that the growth of cities makes the educational problem far more difficult than formerly; in fact, has created a new school problem. The plan represents an attempt to meet these new conditions and to make it practicable both administratively and financially for school adminis^ trators to provide not only classroom accommodations, but also modern educational facilities, such as gymnasiums, shops, and labora- tories, that children may be kept wholesomely occupied in study and work and play.* 1 For a statement of the plan and its method of operation, see Bui. 1920, No. 22, pp. 14 ff. EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. 13 Let IB consider how this plan can be applied to conditions in Elizabeth City. A BmLDING PROGRAM ON THE BLASIS OF THE WORK^STUDY-PLAY PLAN, PLAN I. 1. White schools. — ^There are now 1,425 children, 36 classes, in the two white schools. This makes just about eiiougb children for one fair-sized school. All thase children should be housed in one school plant, to be located on the present high-school site. The building could be erected in the form of an H , the present high-school building fonning one section, and another building erected to the rear of the present high school forming the other section, with an auditorium between the two. As has been pointed out, the building would have to be planned to take care of a 43-class school in order to provide for a growth over a period of five years. There are, however, at the present time in the high-school building 16 regular classrooms, 4 rooms in the base- ment, an auditorium on the second floor, and 4 attic rooms. Under the work-study-play plan, a school of 48 classes would re- quire only 24 classrooms, or 8 more than are now available in the high- school building. Another building should therefore be erected to the rear of the high-school building. To do this the lot on which the present building stands should be squared, the houses to the rear of the highnschool building removed, and a new building of 12 imits erected, with an auditorium between this building and the existing high school. Twenty-four of the best rooms in the two buildings should be used as classrooms. That would leave 4 imits, 2 of which can be used as laboratories, 1 as a drawing room, and 1 as a music room. The 4 rooms in the basement of the old building should be used as shops. In the basement of the new building a gymnasium could be provided for boys, 2 units could be used for cooking rooms, and 1 unit for another shop. The auditorium of the old building could be used as a gymnasium for girls. In other words, with the addition of a 12-room building the follow- ing accommodations could be secured for a 48-class school: 24 class- rooms, 2 gymnasiums, 2 laboratories, a drawing room, a music room, 5 shops, and a cooking room. An auditorium could be erected be- tween the old and the new building, with entrances on the side and also with an entrance on the street, so that it could be used easily for community purposes; congestion could be relieved, and provision made for growth for 5 years. 14 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY,'n. C. Since a classroom unit costs apprpximately $16,000, which includes the cost of an auditorium and gymnasium, a building, of 12 units would cost $192,000. As has already been suggested, land should be purchased to square the present lot. Also additional playground space is needed, and for this purpose either the whole lot to the north of the present building or the lot directly across the street should be purchased. Of course, the lot to the north of the present building is preferable, as it would not necessitate the children crossing the street for play. Estimating the cost of land at approximately $30,000, the appropriation for tiie white schools would be $222,000. 2. Negro schools, — ^As has been pointed out, the present Negro school buildings are so inadequate that it will be necessary to abandon them and erect new buildings. At the present time (1919-20) there are 595 children in the three public schools, 15 classes. The increase has been approximately at the rate of one class a year. Therefore, pit) vision ^ould be made for at least 750 children, or 18 classes, in order to provide for growth for at least four years. On the work-study-play plan, this would necessitate a building of nine classrooms and four special activity rooms — a shop for boys, a cooking room for girls, a nature-study room, and a library. An auditorium and gymnasium would be included. This makes a build- ing of 13 units. At a cost of $16,000 per classroom unit, a building of 13 units would cost $208,000. Estimating the cost of land at $10,000, the building and land would come to $218,000. The total cost, then, of a building program as outlined would be $440,000. If it is desired, however, to limit the contemplated bond issue to $300,000, making temporary arrangements for the Negro schools, and thereby postponing the erection of a permanent building, the following Plan II is suggested. PLAN II. Erect two portable buildings of the modern type for Negro children in the northern and southern ends of the town. Each building should accommodate 10 classes. This would necessitate four class- rooms, $4,000; an auditorium, $2,500; gymnasium, $2,500; a shop, $2,000; a cooking room, $3,000; a drawing room, $1,000; nature- study room, $1,000. All these units can be combined into a single building with corridor, principal's office, store, showers, and heat- ing plant, making a total approximate cost of $30,000 for each building. This would make the total budget for the Negro schools $60,000, or with the cost of sites approximately $70,000, thus bring- ing the total budget to approximately $300,000, EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C, 15 Cost of buildiTig program according to Plan L White school: Erect a 12-uidt building which, with present high-school building, would provide for a 48-clas8 school — Cost of building $192,000 Cost of land 30,000 Total 222, 000 Negro school: Erect a 13-unit building which will house an l8-clas8 school- Cost of building 208,000 Cost of land 10, 000 Total 2 18, 000 Grand total 440, 000 Cost of building program according to Plan II, Vhite school: Erect a 12-unit building which, with present high-school building, would provide for a 48-cla98 school — Cost of building $192,'000 Cost of land 30, 000 Total 222, 000 Negro school: Two movable buildings each to contain — Four classrooms 4, 000 Auditorium 2, 500 Gymnasium : • 2, 500 Shop 2, 000 Cooking room 3, 000 Drawing room 1, 000 Nature study * . . . 1, 000 15,000 Corridors, heating plant, etc 15, 000 Total 30, 000 Cost of two buildings 60, 000 Cost of land 10. OCO Total 70, 000 Grand total cost for both white and N^^o schools 292, 0'J 0 in. ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION. APATHY OF THE BOARD OF ALDERMEN. The board of aldermen is charged by law with the duty of electing the members of the board of education. Four vacancies occur each year. On Monday, December 6, 1920, at a meeting of the board of ■lx 16 BDUCATIOKAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, K. C. aldermen, nine vacancies in the board of education were filled. It appears, therefore, that the board of aldermen has not taken sufficient interest in the affairs of the public schools to discharge its duties at the proper time. The fact that this lapse could occur without public protest suggests the absence of a keen interest in their schools on the part of the citizens and taxpayers of Elizabeth City. INTEREST OF THE BOARD OF EDUCATION IN SCHOOL AFFAIRS. Some indication of the degree of interest taken in school affairs i» afforded by noting the regularity with which members attend the meetings of the board. The minutes of the board were examined, and the attendance noted for the period from August 10, 1917, to November 5, 1920, or three years and three months. During this period there were a number of interruptions in the regular order of meetings. For example, no meeting was held between December 13, 1918, and February 7, 1919; no meeting was held-between October 16, 1919, and February 24, 1920. During the period mentioned 41 meetings were held, at only 3 of which were more than 12 members present; there were 8 meetings at which only 6, 7, or 8 members were present. The average at- tendance was only 10 members. See table following: Attendance of members of the board of ediLcation at its meetings Dec. 13. 1918 to Feb. 7, 1919. Numbor of mem bers present. - Number of meetings. Aggregate attendance. 6 2 12 7 3 21 • 8 3 24 9 10 90 10 7 70 11 • 6 66 12 7 84 13 2 26 14 1 14 Total . . ... 41 407 If 16 members had been present at each of the 41 meetings, the aggregate attendance would be 656; the actual attendance was 407, or only 62 per cent. The passing grade in the schools under the board^s direction is 75. During the period from August 29, 1919, to November 5, 1920, the board held 13 meetings. Only one member attended 13 meetings; only 6 members attended 10 or more meetings. The average number of meetings attended was 9.5. See table following: EDUCATIONAL StTRYEY OF ELIZABETH CIT^^ If. C): 17 ui.Uendance of members of the board of education at its meetings Aug, $9, 1919^ to Nor. S, 1920. Number of meet- Number of members Aggregate ings attended. attending. attendance. 2 12 3 2 6 5 15 6 2 12 7 17 8 2 16 9 19 10 2 20 11 1 11 12 2 24 13 1 13 Total 13 125 If 16 members had attended each of the 13 meetings, the aggregate attendance would be 208; the actual attendance was 125, or only 60.1 per cent. The efficiency of ihe board, as well as the degree of active interest manifested, so far as these are indicated by regularity of attendance upon the official meetings of the board, have been deteriorating. Selection of the school board. — ^The school board of Elizabeth City is composed of 16 members, 4 from each of the 4 wards, appointed by the board of aldermen for a term of 4 years. Although the method of choosing board memb^^s and the size of the board are contrary to general practice, and to the general opinion of students of school administration, the survey committee does not recommend that the method of selecting members be abandoned, but it does recommend that the size of the board be reduced to 5 members, appointed at large for a term of 5 years, one member to be appointed each year. Size of board. — ^The school board should be composed of fewer members, .for the following reasons: The present board of 16 mem- bers is unwieldy and unnecessary for the transaction of business; a smaller board would consider school matters more carefully; in a large board too much dependence is placed on a few to do the think- ing and the work; the individual member feels that he does not count for much in a large board, and often loses interest. The recommendation that the size of the board be reduced is made primarily on the ground that the present board is not functioning efficiently. Term of office. — The tendency in the best school practice is to lengthen the term of office of members of the board. A long term, 61929—21 3 18 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. with only partial renewal of the personnel at each new election, usually insures a settled administrative policy. The present term of 4 years in Elizabeth City is satisfactory in this respect. The change to 5 years is suggested chiefly in view of the fact that it is recommended that the board be composed of 5 members. Ward appointment — ^Appointment of members of the board of education should be made irrespective of residence by wards. The schools belong to the entire city. Just what is gained by appoint- ment by wards no one in Elizabeth City could make clear. At present members of the board of education are virtually chosen by the aldermen of their respective wards, rather than by the entire board of aldermen, representing the entire city. With a board of only 5 members, and only one to be appointed each year, the board of aldermen would approach the task of select- ing from the entire city the person best qualified for the position from an entirely diflFerent point of view. Method of choosing, — ^At present, it is recommended that the board of aldermen continue to appoint members of the board of educa- tion, in preference to popular election, which is the more commonly accepted practice. This reconmiendation is based on the belief that in the present state of public opinion in Elizabeth City those persons who are best qualified to serve on the school board would probably not be active candidates for popular election, or allow their names to be used. POWERS AND DUTIES OF THE SCHOOL BOARD. Control of funds. — The school board of Elizabeth City has, as it should have, complete control of the expenditure of the school funds, once they are appropriated by the board of aldermen and apportioned from the State and county school funds. Without definite recommendation of a change in the present arrangement, it may be stated that the present tendency in prac- tice is to make city boards of education entirely independent of other branches of city government, so that they may have- power to levy, within statutory limitations, a tax sufficient to maintain the public schools on a high plane of efficiency. When the board is elected by the people, and thus responsible directly to the people, it is not likely to embark on undertakings which do not command general popular approval. Legislative J executive, and inspectorial powers. — The work of a board of education may be classed as legislative, executive, and inspectorial. No school board can perform aU of these functions, because of lack of time, and, more especially, because its members are not EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N.^C. 19 fitted to perform them all. Progressive boards limit their func- tions to the first and last, and employ a superintendent with special training and qualifications to serve as the executive of the board. Legislative functions include the making of general policies, and regulations relative to their execution. These policies concern the scope of the school system, selection of sites for buildings, the kinds of schools to be established and maintained, the facilities to be sup- plied, and the apportionment of the school funds. The Elizabeth City school board does not give adequate time and attention to legislative functions. The board employs an executive officer, the superintendent of schools, and apparently gives him full executive authority. The board practically ignores its inspectorial function, so far as evidence could be found. The board does not know what the schools are doing. Those features of the work of the schools concerning which, the board should be informed include: General school conditions. Regularity of attendance. ProgreaB of the pupils. Cost per pupU in elementary schools. Cost per pupil in high school. Cost per pupil in colored schools. Cost per pupil far each item of expenditure. Sanitary conditions. Attitude of pupils toward school work. Attitude of the teachers. Careers of pupils after leaving school. Board members should visit the schools occasionally to observe general school conditions at first hand. The board should keep informed upon the practice in what are considered the good city school systems of the country. Members of the board, with the superintendent of schools, should visit other school systems from time to time, and attend educational meetings, and require from the superintendent reports upon what has been seen and heard. If the board were better informed in school matters it would then be able to ask the superintendent questions concerning the administration and supervision of the Elizabeth City schools, such as: What is the best practice and what the best educational thought regarding corporal punishment ? Should children 12 to 15 years of age be taught in the same classes with children 6 years of age ? What measures can be taken to reach children of school age who are not now in school ? 20 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. THE SUPERINTENDENTS REPORT. The superintendent should keep in orderly and systematic manner statistical information concerning significant matters relating to the school. In other words, the superintendent should be making a continuous survey of the school system. ^ In a school system that is steadily improving in the quality of its work, there will be found, among others, the following character- istics : (1) From year to year the school system will enroll a laiger per- centage of children of school age, and will carry them further along in the grades before they drop out. (2) The percentage of pupils in school above compulsory attend- ance age to those of compulsory attendance ages will increase. (3) The proportion of over-age pupils and pupils who are making slow progress wiU decrease. (4) Fewer pupils will fail of promotion, and fewer will drop out of school before completing the course. (5) Sufficient teachers and classrooms will be provided as the number of children increases, so that all may be accommodated comfortably and adequately. (6) The professional qualifications of the teachers will be advanc- ing steadily. (7) There will be increasing regularity of attendance. (8) When pupils leave school before the completion of grammar school or high school, the reasons will be ascertained, and in the light of information thus gained the work of the schools will be modified in the endeavor to meet the needs of such children more adequately. (9) The careers of children will be followed up after they leave school. (10) Instruction in the schools will react more and more upon the homes and lives of the people; especially instructions in health, music, art, literature, manual training, and home economics. Definite information concerning these and other matters should be collected, compiled, and interpreted. Records now in the office of the superintendent contain very little to show in what respects the schools of Elizabeth City are better to-day than they were 5 or 10 years ago. The board should at once provide the means of keeping simple but adequate records, including a clerk or secretary to the superin- tendent, who has some knowledge of this kind of work. The data to be collected should include : (1) The number of children of each year of age in the citj^, and the number in school, both public and private. BDUCATIONAIi SUBTEY OF ELIZABETH GITYy K. C. 21 (2) The number of children of compulsory attendance ages m and out of school. (3) The number of children above compulsory attendance ages in and out of school. (4) The ratio of school pupils above compulsory attendance age to those of compulsory attendance ages; also annual changes in this ratio. (5) Number of pupils for. each 100 beginners who drop out of school at each age, and at each grade; number of those leaving to enter school elsewhere; number leaving for other specified causes. (6) Per cent of those entering the first grade who complete the elementary school course, and the high school course. (7) Per cent of those completing the elementary school course who enter high school. (8) Per cent of those entering the high school who complete the course. (9) Per cent of high-school graduates who enter college; the kinds of courses pursued in college, and the quality of work done. (10) Age-grade distribution of all pupils for the entire system, and for each school separately. (11) Average daily attendance based on number belonging and on school population; also distribution showing the number and per cent of children attending 1 to 10 days, 11 to 20 days, etc. (12) Present occupations of those who have graduated from the high school within 4, 5, or 10 years; and similar information con- cerning those who have left during the same period without com- pleting the course. (13) Number and per cent of pupils who fail of promotion in each grade and in each subject. (14) Ability and achievements of pupils, as determined by school grades and standard objective tests. (15) Various cost items. (16) Preparation, experience, and other significant facts regarding the teachers. (17) Significant facts regarding schools in other cities. The'facts having been collected and compiled the superintendent shouldf use them in preparing his monthly and annual reports to the board. The annual report should be published for distribution to the pubUc. From the data collected, tables and charts should be prepared and published in the annual report, and also from time to time in the local newspapers. 61929—21 i 22 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF EUZABETH CITY, X. C. TEACHERS' SALARIES. Elementary schools (wJiite). — ^The median salary paid white elementary school teachers in Elizabeth City is low in comparison with the amounts paid in other cities having a population of 8,000 to 30,000. In a group of 68 cities located in the Eastern States Elizabeth City is next to the lowest; in a group of 64 cities in the Great Lakes States Elizabeth City ranks 62d; in a group of 33 cities in the Great Plains States Elizabeth City ranks 27th; in comparison with a group of 24 cities in the Western States Elizabeth City ranks lowest ; in a group of 33 cities in the Southern States Elizabeth City ranks 23d. These figures relate to the school year 1919-20; it is probable that Elizabeth City has somewhat improved its relative position this year. The salary schedule would be improved by providing a greater difference between the minimum and maximum salaries, and by providing a longer period in which to reach the maximum. The present plan offers no inducement for special industry or for sustained effort to secure self-improvement. The following salary schedule is suggested for consideration by the Elizabeth City board : Table 5. — Suggested $alary sdiedule of elementary and high school teachers (white). Teachers. One-year t«>aclier8 (probationary for {3 years). Three-year teachers Five-year tea " hers Permanent teachers l>n^ of time ofap* pomt^ ment. 1 year.. 3 years. 5 years. (>) JRJi^menfAry. Mini- mum. SI, 000 1,225 1,450 1,700 Maxi- mum. %l, 150 1,375 1,650 2,000 High 4fi .... .... i 100 Total 4 7 7 14 18 2 1 ! 1 1 1 1 . ,. ,1 209 Male 6 6 12 25 45 1 4 5 2 1 3 ] 1 -• • • M 2 Female 4 8 1A 1 6 4 99 Total 7n . 42 1 2 1 • • « « 185 Male i .... 1 - • — 35 36 71 95 3 • Female 1 3 16 ; 6 34 • ^ 5 9 1 1 88 Total ! "' 3 1 2 3 3 6 5 3 8 0 ......... 183 Male 2 13 23 36 18 27 iL 1 7 8 1 1 22 12 34 17 20 37 15 27 11 9 20 18 15 33 5 7 12 11 5 1A 81 4 Female 2 4 SO Total 171 [Male 1 1 2 7 2 9 3 4 7 3 10 13 « ■ ■ • .... • • • ■ • ■ • * 5 77 5 ■ Female ... - . . • 73 150 Male 12 1 14 55 6 Female . ^.. . 1 ] 91 1 7 7 1 74 Total 42 ' XI 1 21 IB 129 Male 1 2 14 14 10 24 8 5 13 45 7 Female 2 23 4 37 1 51 Total 96 Male '•■•i""l ■ 64 63 127 52 66 118 75 70 145 71 76 147 59 , 77 82 1 72 141 uo &4 75 139 47 31 78 29 18 47 14 16 30 5 1 6 557 Total... Female 570 Totla 1.127 Table 12, — Summary of enrollment in colored i ilementary sdiooUy Elizabeth City.^ Bex. Ages. Grades. 5 7 5 12 6 34 47 81 7 29 40 69 8 37 35 72 9 10 11 16 10 26 5 11 16 8 8 16 11 8 19 12 4 10 14 1 7 8 11 9 20 4 8 12 13 2 3 5 « • • • 1 1 4 5 14 15 16 17 18 19 21 and ovw. ToteU fMale U 1 2S 167 1 Female I Total [Male 24 89 4 10 14 16 39 9 1 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 • •■•'- 193 MO » 1 3 26 2. ... FpmaiA . . . , , _ •13 16 2 7 9 ...... 43 Total 1 1 1 "2 1 1 69 Male 10 11 S 8 18 1 19 2 8 5 2 7 10 1 47 3 Ff«"UiV. r . 47 Total 9 ' 2 1 ....t.... 94 Male 1 1 4 8 12 2 4 A 1 1 2 2 6 8 • • • ■ 5 m 0 3 8 11 1 1 30 4. {Female. 1 • • ■ • « • « ■ 1 1 2 3 3 6 1 7 8 7 12 19 1 1 I 5 1 ... 1 1 34 Total i---. 1 64 Male 1 12 7 2 7 14 3 9 21 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 20 5 Fejnale 38 A Total 5» [Male * 1 I I 1 2I 2 2 4 1.-.. 1 13 {Female , 1 15 1 Total 1 1 3 1 6l 2 1 3 3 6 1 3 1 4 2 1 28 Male 1 1 - 1 1 10 7 Female . 1 2 2 2 24 Total 1 2| 34 Male 7 35 1 30 40 70 42 55 97 31 47 78 52 30 82 43 46 89 29 14 7 23 30 7 7 14 5 2 7 3 1 4 1 .... * "3 3 313 Total Female Total 5' 12 1 g! 53 82 23 37 394 707 1 This table mdudes all colored pupils reported in Elisabeth City public schools, as follows: Sawyer Town, grade 1; Gale Street, grades 1 and 2; Shannon Street, grades 2-5; training department. State Normal Schools (exclusive of pupils not resident in Elizabeth City), grades 1-7. EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. 29 The usual age at which children enter school is 6 years ^ though many do not enter imtil they are 7. In considering the age-grade table, therefore, it is customary to regard children of 6 or 7 years of age as *' of normal age '' for grade 1, and children of 7 or 8 years of age as of normal age for grade 2, and so on. The first facts to be noted in these tables are the excessive pro- portions of children who are beyond the normal ages for the grades in which they are enrolled, and the wide spread of ages represented in individual grades, especially grados 1 and 2. It does not require expert professional knowledge to understand that something is wrong, for example, when white children of all ages from 6 years to 15 years are grouped together attempting to do the same work. Here is a spread of 10 years in the ages of the chil- dren, 3 years more than the span of the entire elementary school course. Included in this group are little tots of 6, as well as youths who have entered upon the adolescent period and are old enough to be in the second or third year of high school, and children of all ages in between; and all are trying to do second-year work. The situation is even worse in the colored schools, where children of all ages from 5 years to 16 years are found in the first grade. The facts with regard to acceleration and retardation of pupils are summarized in Table 13. • _ Table 13. — Acceler Under Of normal age. age. 3.0 62.0 , 1.0 33.3 ; 34.3 42.5 20.0 34.0 Over 35.0 04.8 33. 1 37.0 1 See Bull.. 1918, No. 15, p. 47. s Ayres: Identification of the Misfit Child. From these figures it appears that the amount of retardation in the Elizabeth City schools is not excessive when compared with other <;ities, though in grades 4 and 5 it is considerably greater. The <5omparison shows in a striking manner, however, the deficiency of Elizabeth City in the proportion of children who are under age for the grades in which they are enrolled. Only 3 per cent of white children and 2 per cent of colored children are under age, whereas in other cities the proportions are about one-fourth or more. PER CENT OF DISTRIBUTION BY GRADES. Next to be considered is the proportionate distribution of the <;hildren through the grades. (See Table 15.) Table 15. — Per cent of pupils (white) in each grade. Grades. Elizabeth city. Four States having the 7-4 plan.i Oradm. £ll7Abeth aty. Four states ha\ ing the 7-4 plan.i KindorEsrten 0.26 23.61 13.65 13.35 12.86 11.02 0.03 7 6.9 7.0 6.2 3.0 3.1 7.23 15.0 13.5 13.1 12.2 10.7 0.3 8 4.06 2 9 2.42 3 10 1.53 4 11 .08 5 . Total 6 100.0 100.00 1 See Bui., 1920, No. 11, Table 3, p. 20. In comparison with average conditions in other school systems having seven years of elementary school and four years of high school, Elizabeth City has fewer children in the first grade and more in the high-school grades. EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. 31 Table 16 has been prepared to show conditions in the elementary schools separately. Table 16. — Per cent of eletnentary school pupils in each ffrade. White. Colored. Grades. Eliza- beth City. Four States having 7-4 plan. » Elisa- beth City. Four States having 7-4 plan. Ktnderg&rten 0.29 25.94 15.00 14.67 14. 13 12.11 9.92 7.94 0.01 1 18.6 16.8 16.2 15.2 13.3 11.4 8.5 51.9 9.8 13.3 9.0 8.2 3.9 4.8 39.28 2 3 17.19 14.91 4 12.29 5 &52 6 5.15 7 2.65 Total 100.0 100.00 100.0 100.00 1 See Bui., 1920, No. 11, Table 3, p. 20. From these figures it appears that for the white schools, with the exception of grade one, the distribution does not vary significantly from that of other cities. The distribution of pupils in the colored schools, however, is so abnormal as to suggest the complete lack of systematic grading. HOLDING POWER OF THE SCHOOLS. Another measure of the efficiency of a school system is the success with which it retains the pupils until the completion of the course. For each 100 children who enter, how many complete the elementary school course, and how many complete the high-school course ? Answers to these vital questions can not now be found for the Elizabeth CSty schools; for the essential facts are not available. In the absence of definite knowledge as to the number of children entering school each year for the first time, the answers can be approximate only. It is possible, for example, to compute the number of children in each grade for each 100 children in grade 1. (See Table 17.) Table 17. — Number of children in each grade, based on 100 in the first grade. r\Ft%A 1 EUzabeth City. Averaije of 30' cities ( white).! Grades. EUjsabeth City. Average of 30 uracies. White. 1 Colored. White. Colored. cities (white).i 1 1 ! 100 100 100 88 77 75 70 63 7 46 46 41 20 20 9 52 2 :::::::.:..' 91 19 26 18 8 43 3 88 9 4 82 10 5 72 16 11 6 62 8 1 1 0(10,1 for 1918-19; soe Bal., 1920| No. 27, p. 21. Average of 30 cities of United States with a population or under. 32 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. It is to be observed, first, that these figures are not based on lOQ beginners, for, as will appear hereafter, there are many repeaters in grade 1. Here, again, the figures for Elizabeth City compare favor- ably with those of other cities. However, further analysis is necessary before conditions can be fully understood. It is possible to arrive at the approximate number of children reaching any given age each year by computing the average of the numbers over a period of years. For this purpose ages 7 to 12 years are chosen, in order to include the groups least likely to be affected by late entrance to and early withdrawal from school. (See Table 18.) Table 18. — Number of pupils 7 to 12 years of age in Elizabeth City. Ages in years. 8.. 9.. 10. 11. 12. Total . . Average. ( 1 White. Colored. il8 70 U.*) 97 147 78 Ul S2 U9 ft9 143 S2 84-'{ 498 140 83 The total number of children arriving at school age each year on the average, for whom school facilities should be provided, is thus shown to be approximately 140 white and 83 colored, or 223. If all children enter at about the same age, and progress through the schools at the normal rate of one grade each year, there would be approxi- mately 140 white pupils and 83 colored pupils in each of the seven, grades. If more than these numbers are found in any grade, it is evident that children are repeating their work, or else, in some cases, possibly they .have entered school earlier or later than the normal age at entrance. Adequate records in the superintendent's oflice would assist in determining causes and in planning remedies. Whatever the causes, Elizabeth City is now maintaining six first- grade classes for white pupils, with a total enrollment of 209, whereas four classes of approximately 35 pupils each should be sufficient. There are seven first-grade classes for colored pupils, with a total enrollment of 360, whereas three classes of less than 30 pupils each should be sufficient. THE SCHOOLS CARRY AN UNNECESSARY LOAD. With 140 beginning pupils each year (assuming a stable population,, not affected by fluctuations in birth rate, death rate, and other factors), and with normal progress through the grades, the total enrollment in the white elementary school would be 980, and in the EDUCATIOXAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, ^:. C. 33 high school, 560; and in the colored elementary school, 581. (See Table 19.) Table 19. — Number of pupils enrolled in each grade, compared with number of appro- priate age for the grade. White. Colored. Grades. Approxi- mate number at each agc.i Numbor in school of appro- priate age for grade.! Number enrolled. Approxi- mate numbor at each age.i Number in school of appro- priate age ade.> Number enrolled. 1 140 140 140 140 140 140 110 122 131 146 144 146 141 124 209 189 183 171 150 129 96 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 76 83 77 80 85 85 69 360 2 09 3 94 4 d4 5 58 « 28 7 34 Total 980 953 1,127 681 535 707 8 140 140 ' 140 140 ' 108 96 70 50 97 i 86 42 43 9 >. .|. ... .... • •«••■•- •'• 10 ..........|... ....... 11 «««••«•• Total 500 ; 1 324 268 1 1 The appTOximBte number of children at each year of age was obtained by computing the avrragc num- ber cf those 7 years to 12 yectfs of age, inclusive. * The number of children in school of appropriate age for each grade was obtained by computing the average of 6-year-old and 7-year-old diildren for grade 1, the average of 7-year-old and 8-y ear-old children for grade 2; and so on. In column 2 of this table is shown the actual number of pupils in school who are of ages appropriate for each grade. For grade 1 is entered the average number of children who are 6 years and 7 years old; for grade 2, the average numberof those 7 years and 8 years old'; and so on. These groups total, for the white schools, 953 elementary pupils and 324 high school pupils; and 535 colored elementary pupils. In the third column is shown the actual enrollment for the current year. V. THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. THE CURRICULUM SITUATION. The curriculum of the Elizabeth City elementary schools does not meet the requirements of a modern elementary cuniculum. It contains no subject that w^as not taught 30 or 40 years ago in prac- tically all of our schools, unless we except domestic science, and omits still some subjects that our better schools taught fully 50 years ago. The curriculum makes no provision for physical training. It is the first business of any school system to build up the bodies of its children. While the children in Elizabeth City schools have 34 EDUCATIONAL SUBVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. brief setting-up exercises 'every day, there is no well-planned coui'se of physical activity and play. Physical education in public school does more to improve the results of instruction than almost any other single factor. The citizens of Elizabeth City should wish to have their children trained in bodv as well as in mind. Next, there is practically no music in the schools. What singing was heard was very poor. It should not be necessary to argue for the cultural and moral and physical values of good music. There can be no real community life and unity without it. The churches, civic organizations, clubs, and the like all need members who can sing. Is it not a responsibility of the schools? The citizens of Elizabeth City should expect their schools to assume a large share- of the burden of the musical education of the children. For the reason given for all deficiencies — no money — ^handwork and drawing have been sadly neglected. The little that is ^iven in manual arts is very poorly done. There are no well-defined courses in these subjects. The citizens of Elizabeth City can not afford to have the latent artistic possibilities of its future citizens go undis- covered because the schools fail to arouse them. Home economics is very poorly provided for. Civics is an unknown subject in the elementary grades. Many of the children leave school before reaching the eighth grade, where civics are taught; hence they receive no systematic, well-organized civic training, and they are the ones who need it most of all. Nature study, or elementary science, is entirely neglected except for brief unorganized series of lessons, often connected with language or geography work. Do the citizens of Elizabeth City desire that their children's love of nature be undeveloped ? The love for natural and physical sciences should be aroused and developed. The chil- dren of Elizabeth City will experience difficulty in competing with children from other communities in technical fields if no basis for this work is laid. What do the schools teach ? Reading, writing, language, arithme- tic, physiology, geography, history, spelling, and some drawing and home economics. Important features of modem public school sys- tems are lacking. It is a commonly accepted principle of curriculum making that the courses oflFered should reflect in some measure the local commu- nity, to help the child interpret his own environment. Such is not the case in Elizabeth City. The course offered would fit just as well in New England, Alaska, Montana, or New Mexico. The course is made out according to adopted texts from page to page. Most mod- ern school systems write out a course of study to meet their own needs. Elizabeth City has no such course, but should have one. EDUCATIONAL SUBVEY OF BUZABBTH CITY, N, C. 85 Modem courses of study are generally differentiated, so that the slower children are not required to do the same amount of work in the same time as the brighter children. The practice of making every child progress at the same rate through school ought to be dis- continued. Study of the results in Elizabeth City show that the bright child gets little more from school than the dull child and according to his ability not nearly so much. Is there any reason for holding a child back and giving him less than he wishes to do simply because he was created with more ability than his fellows? The course is entirely inflexible, except as the child bends it to suit his own mentality. The courses in the subjects offered are much the same as those found in many American communities. The child is occupied chiefly with acquiring facts which, while interesting, perhaps, in some instances, are entirely useless now or hereafter. Practically none of the subjects have anything at all to do with shaping his character or establishing practical, soimd ideals. Many of the, facts he gets will never be used. Becommendations, — 1. There should be prepared and printed a modem, flexible course of study, adaptable to the needs of individ- ual pupils. 2. Music, art, handwork, home economics, civics, gardening, ele- mentary science, and physical training should be added to the cur- riculum. 3. The subjects now taught should be reorganized, with the elimi- nation of worthless fact material and the inclusion of useful knowl- edge. 4. The curriculum should be adapted to the needs of the children of Elizabeth City. It should be stamped with chaiacteristics of the Ehzabeth ttty community. 5. The course should be organized around the large units of study, problems, or projects suitable to the grades in which they are used. Such a course increases interest and is essentially of the type to stimulate activity and initiative on the part of the children. EQUIPMENT PROBLEM. Seats, desks, blackboards, and buildings just about complete the list of equipment, and we might well eliminate most of the buildings from the list. The buildings are almost impossible of use, except the high-school building, and it will need modification to be of its greatest use. School equipment costs money, and since it is used a great deal it will have to be replaced constantly. There is no way in these days of providing good but cheap education. The citizenship of Eliza- beth City is responsible for the condition of its schools to the extent 36 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. that they have not provided ample funds for the mamtenance of well-equipped schools. Lack of equipment makes it impossible for teachers to do fiistK^lass work. Lack of equipment always gives teachers an excuse for doing poor work. The foDowing essentials in school equipment, without which the instruction in the schools will be greatly handicapped, are recom- mended : 1. Provision should be made at once for better buildings — partic- ularly for the prunary grades and the Negroes. These buildings should be correctly built for light, ventilation, and heating. These factors affect instruction. 2. Laboratories for manual trainmg, home economics, and ele- mentary science are necessary before these subjects can be even intro- duced into the curriculum properly. 3. There is a need of well-equipped playgrounds, open the year roimd. The children of Elizabeth City should be permitted and trained to play. 4. The buildings should have gymnasiums and playrooms. Health is the foundation of all good school work. 5. The schools need libraries, open all the year. 6. The classrooms need libraries. 7. The schools need a great many supplementary reading and reference books. 8. The schools are in need of illustrative material: Maps, pictures, charts, globes, manufacturers' exhibits, stereographic and stereo- scopic apparatus, moving-picture machines, stereopticons and slides^ weights and measures, and a school museum. 9. Space and equipment are needed for school gardens. 10. The primary grades need paper, cardboard, and all sorts of media for handwork and construction. ORGANIZATION PROBLEM. The present system of elementary schools consists of seven grades, promotions being made once a year. We recommend the reorgani- zation of the whole system to consist of a kindergarten for children of ages approximately 4-6 years; an elementary school for children 6-12 years; a junior high school, 12-15; and a senior high school, 15-18. The reasons for this are set forth elsewhere. The following recommendations refer to the school organization problem: 1. There should be a kindergarten, a six-year elementary school, a three-year junior high school, a three-year senior high school. 2. Promotions should be made twice a year at least, and more often if possible. EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. 37 3. There should be special classes for especially gifted children. 4. There should be special classes for retarded children, with care not to put together those mentally weak and those retarded merely because of health. 5. Children in the several sections of one grade should be classi- fied according to ability rather than by physical age or size. This principle should be used with some reservations that will become apparent in its application. 6. The course of study should be flexible enough to fit a flexible grading system, providing more work for the better pupils and full work for each according to his ability. 7. The daily schedule should provide for laboratory and field work. 8. Departmental teaching should be provided in the intermediate grades, if specialists can be secured. 9. There should be a longer school day, made up of recitation, study, manual activities, and play. THE SUPERVISION PROBLEM. The chief cause for deficiencies in the elementary schools is the complete lack of supervision of the instruction and leadership for the teachmg staff. The schools, both primary and intermediate, are virtually without principals. The teachers acting in this capacity have full-time teaching duties, while the superintendent of schools, who has part of the responsibility in supervision, is entirely too busy to give the attention really needed. Supervision of instruction means briefly these : The establishment of comjnon aims of work among the teachers; discussion of means to attain these ends; measurijQg the results of the instruction; and remedial measures to correct and improve the teaching. No one in the entire system has these things as his duties at the present time. Each teacher does what she can. Skilled advice and helpful inspiration are wholly wanting. . In addition to the instructional side of supervision, there is an administrative routine demanded of a principal. This routine con- sists of schedule making, discipline, parents' meetings, class organiza- tion, reports, physical conditions, janitors, and many other such matters. These things are taken care of now, as added burdens, by two full-time teachers. As a result, their work or the administrative duties must suffer. The foUowing suggestions refer to supervision: 1. There should be appointed a supervising principal for the primary school and one for the intermediate school. These principals should not be required to teach more than 8 or 10 hours a week. 38 EDUCATIONAL, SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. 2. These principals should be persons who have had special training for supervision. 3. With the introduction of music, art, physical training, and home economics, supervisors should be appointed for these subjects, who will devote part of their time to assisting and directing the work in these special subjects done by the regular teachers. THE INSTRUCTION PROBLEM. The results obtained in the Elizabeth City schools compare favor- ably with the results foimd elsewhere in spelling, reading, and problem solving in arithmetic, while the results in the four processes in arithmetic are far below standard. The work in geography, language, literature, history, and physiology is of the usual sort, and done in about the same study-and-recite fashion common to the average American school. The instruction is neither good nor wholly bad. It is disconnected with modem educational practice* The teachers teach as they were taught and as they have been taught to teach. They make an assignment, the children learn it, and recite it. The ability and power of the ordinary child are never discovered, never utilized. Such conditions are traceable to the teacher training methods in this country more than to anything else. It is much the same elsewhere as it is at Elizabeth Qity. Better work can be done. Does Elizabeth City want it? We believe that Elizabeth CSty would be willing to pay for high-class teaching if it had the oppor- tunity. Tne following suggestions refer to the teaching situation: 1. Teachers should be trained both in subject matter and in the methods of instruction. 2. The teachers should be selected because they are intellectual leaders as well as educated persons. 3. The teachers should be required to be social and civic leaders, and should be selected in part for ability along this line. 4. Employment should be open to married women, if necessary, in order to retain good teachers in the system. Good teachers are too scarce to permit marriage to render them ineligible. 5. Teachers should be given a definite course of study, with thoroughly understood objectives to be reached in every grade. 6. The teachers should be given thorough and inspiring super- vision. 7. The results of instruction should be constantly measured and necessary remedial steps taken. 8. Teachers should be encouraged to get away from mere parrot- like learning of a book. Children learn more from direct observation and experience than in any other way. EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. 39 9. The problem or project method of instruction should be em- ployed where applicable in all grades. This will provide opportimity, interest, attention, self-activity, and objectiveness in instruction. 10. Demonstration lessons should be given for the benefit of the teachers. 11. Teachers should be permitted to visit other good teachers. 12. The amount of home study in the intermediate grades should be reduced. 13. The amount of time devoted to spelling, arithmetic, and gram- mar should be reduced, and the time saved given over to history, geography, literature, music, civics, nature study, physical training, art, etc. 14. Much time can be saved in instruction if the work is organized aroimd big problems, if the child learns by doing, and i^ useless, unimportant material be eliminated. 15. Supervision should emphasize those types of instruction which develop initiative, responsibility, and self-activity on the part of the child. KINDERGARTENS. 1. Kindergartens should be established for children from 4 to 0 years of age. 2. The spirit of the kindergarten should be carried on into the ele- mentary school through the application of kindergarten principles to primary work. 3. The primary teachers should have expert superTision and in- spirational leadership in applying these principles in the teaching of the regular school subjects and also in teaching manual arts, singing, and games. 4. Modern schoolroom equipment and playground equipment should be provided to carry out this program. 5. Children should be carefully graded by development and not by age. 6. Health inspection and health instruction should be a part of the regular school program. VI. THE HIGH SCHOOL. 1. The high school should make a definite attempt to meet the needs of those who drop out after only one, two, or three years of study, as well as of those who complete the course. 2. The work of the high school shqidd be based upon consideration of the following main objectives of education: (a) Health; (6) com- mand of fundamental processes; (c) worthy home membership; {d) vo- cation; (e) citizenship; (/) worthy use of leisure; (g) ethical character. 40 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C, 3. The present plan of seven elementary-school grades and four- high-school grades is defective in a number of particulars, amon^ which are: (a) Inadequate provision for the needs of individual pupils. ' (6) Large amoimt of retardation of pupils through method of pro- motions. (c) Large numbers of students dropping out at end of seventh and ninth grades. (d) Secondary school course is begun at too late period in the child's life. (e) Unnecessary repetition of the subject matter studied. (/) Wide divergence of interests and needs can be met better by segregation of adolescent children from younger primary children. (g) Poor adjustment between the elementary school and the loigh school. (A) Poor adjustment of school activities to life activities. (i) Elementary methods too long continued and too suddenly changed. (j) Inadequate provision for individual guidance and direction. 4. Some advantages of the proposed reorganization on the basis of six years elementary school, three years junior high school, and three^ years senior high school : (a) An expected decrease in numbers of pupils who drop out of school in grades 7, 8, and 9. (6) More suitable training for the majority of the pupils. {c^ More adaptation to individual needs. {d) More adequate provision for vocational guidance. (c) Better plan of promotions. (/) Better adjustment between elementary and secondary edu- cation. (^) Fewer failures and repeaters. (h) Conditions more favorable for improvement in the quality of instruction. (i) Economy of pupils' time. (;) Better adjustment between school activities and life activities.. (k) Conditions more favorable for study. (Z) Better supervision of social and recreational activities. 5. The high-school course should definitely recognize the fact that the young people are about to enter agriculture, business, trades,, home making, and other occupations. 6. A printed circular should be provided for the guidance of chil- dren and their parents, with fftU description of the work of each course. EDUCATIONAL SUBVBY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. 41 7. A limited number of curriculums should be offered, with a mini- mum of electives, based on the experience of successful junior-senior bigh schools. 8. Provision should be made for cooperative part-time classes, •evening classes, and vacation classes. 9. TThe quality of the instruction averages up well with that ob- served in other high schools. 10. There should be a definite salary schedule for teachers, with a plan of promotions based on merit. 11. Tlie present high-school building falls very far short of ac- •cepted standards for a modem high-school building, being especially defective in regard to lighting, heating, ventilation, fire protection, general equipment, and provision for special classes. Vn. HOME ECONOMICS. Home economics instruction should include something more than just the technic acquired in the preparation of a few foods and the making of a few sewing models. It should awaken in the child appreciation of the value and possibilities of a real home. The instruction should be adapted to the girVs age, interests, mental development, and the racial, religious, social, and economic conditions of her home. The school must recognize that the physical health and economic stability of the Nation are vitally affected by the wisdom or ignor- ance of the mass of women as to the laws of health and the use of material goods. For white pupils two types of course should be provided, general and intensive. The general course should be required of all girls in grades 5 to 9, inclusive, who are of normal age for their grades. The intensive courses should be open to all girls 14 years of age or over. Instruction should deal with problems related as closely as possible to home conditions and should be correlated with other school subjects. For the present, emphasis in home economics should be given to work in grades 5 to 9; elective courses for the higher grades may be developed later. For all colored girls, home economics should occupy an important place in education from about 11 years of age until completion of school; the work should be of the most practical type, with strong emphasis on sanitary practices, good workmanship, and hygienic personal habits. At least one-fourth of each school day should be devoted to this work. 1 42 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. There should be four teachers of home economics in the white schools and three in the colored schools. In the white schools there will be needed two rooms equipped for food work, two for clothing work, a small dining room, with suitable storeroom and closets. In the colored schools there should be provided three rooms for food and clothing work, and one for meal service and practical house* keeping. Vm. MANUAL TRAINING. A well-organized scheme of manual training throughout the schools, white and colored, should be developed, both for its general educa- tional value and as an essential foundation for subsequent voca- tional work. Manual training is here used in the accepted sense of an educa- tional agency involving not only a method of instruction and a content of valuable subject matter, but a means also of self-directed, purposeful activity. The object in view should be to incorporate the best features applicable to local conditions that have been developed by progressive communities, with lines of work of such variety and scope as may be practicable. Handwork should be developed first in the lower grades, and throughout the elementary school should be employed in its various phases for the accomplishment of at least three distinct educational ends: (1) To develop manipulative skill and the ability to '^do'^ things; (2) to impart knowledge of materials and processes of con- struction; and (3) to vitalize the instruction in the various subjects of study, such as geography, history, language, and science. In the earlier grades the best results are secured when the hand- work is taught by the regular grade teachers. It is much easier for these teachers to relate the work to the other studies and activities of the children. With the progress of the children through the grades, however, the work becomes more and more complicated and the tools and processes more difficult of manipulation. In time the point is reached beyond which it is impracticable to expect the grade teacher to acquire the necessary technical skill and knowledge to carry on this work in addition to all the other requirements of her position. From this point, probably the fifth grade, the situation may be met by employing special teachers or by a plan of departmentalized teaching. EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF ELIZABETH CITY, N. C. 43 During the earlier grades the handwork should be substantially the same for boys and girls. With the beginning of departmental teaching a gradual differentiation in the work should be introduced. In general, the interests of the girls will tend in the direction of sewing, cooking, and homemaking, and the interests of the boys toward shopwork and drafting. Both boys and girls will manifest interest in commercial subjects when properly presented. For obvious reasons the teachers of drafting and shopwork, ab well as of agriculture, for boys in the upper grades should be men. In the lower grades not less than 30 to 60 minutes per week should be allowed for handwork, but a more Uberal time allowance should be made as soon as suitable equipment can be provided and teachers are prepared to do the work. Ultimately from two to three hours per week should be provided. Supplies of materials in sufficient quantity and variety to make the work profitable and educational should be provided by the board. In ike upper grades. — Even more time must be allowed f6r manual training in the upper grades if the expected results are to be secured and if boys and girls who now drop out of school in such large numbers are to be retained. With the right kind of equipment, properly qualified men teachers, and appropriately modified courses of study, from 5 to 7 hours weekly may be devoted to manual training in grades above the sixth, and in special prevocational classes at least one-half the school time should be devoted to practical activities in shop, laboratory, and drafting room. With the beginning of departmental teaching the lines of work should include thin wood, bookbinding, clay, cement, and plaster, and such other groups as further study of conditions may indicate. Beginning with the seventh year, the boys should carry still further the problems in bookbinding and woodwork, and to these should be added suitable work in copper, brass, iron, leather, cement and con- crete, electricity, mechanical drawing. The woodwork may well include some simple framing and carpentry. All the shopwork and drafting should be made as practical as possible. Practical work in gardening, agriculture, and commercial subjects should be developed parallel with the manual training. o 'SULLSmS OV THE BirBXAir OF edttqahon. >mmi0 IMU Ko. 1. Mo&UUy r^oruildtng program. No. : a Part II. Survey of the schools of WUmidgton, Del. Separate elem^tary courses ; secondary education ; special depaftmexfts and courses. No, 3. Monthly record of educational publications, February, 1921. 5 cts. NOv 4. Monthly^ record of educational publications, MarCh-April, 1021. & cts. No. 5- Partj-time educatton of various tjrpes. -A. report of the commission on the reorganization of secondary education. No. 6* Opportunities for study at American graduate schools. G. BV ZooK No. 7. Organization for visual Instruction. W. H. Dudley. No. S. Foreign criticism of American education. W.-J. Osburn. No.- 9. Present status of fnusle instruction iti colleges and high scSioolB in- , the United States. Osbourne McOonathy. • * No. 10. T?he visiting teacher. Sophia C, Gleim. ' No. 11. Pharmaceuticai education. Wprtiey F^Hudd and P. F. Fackenthall. < Advance sheets from the -Biennial surrey, 1918-;1920. No. 12. EngUsh grammar in American schools before 1860.- ■ R. L. Lyman« No. IS. The housing and equipment of kindergartens. Ncu 14. Education of the deaf. Pereival Hall. Advanc^i sheets from the Bi^- nlal survey, 1918-1920. No. 15. Medical education, i91&-192Q. N. P. Col well. Advanoe sheet* from the • Biennial survey, 1918-1920. No. 16. Special features in the education of the Wiud. E. E. Allen, Advance sheets from the Biennial survey, 1918-1920. No. 17. Educational boards and foundations; Henry R, Evans. Advance* sheets from tlie Biennial survey, 1918-1920, . No. U3, Education In homeopathic medicine. W. A. Dewey. Advance sheets from the Biennial survey, 1918-1920. . . No. 19. Kindergarten education. Julia Wade Abbot. Advance sheets from tie . Bienhial survey, 1018-1920, - No. 20. Developments^ in nursing educaOon since J918. M. Adelaide Nutting and Isabel M. Stewart.- Advance sheets from the Biennial survey, 1918-1920. . No. 21. Higher education. G. F. 2Sook, Advance sheeta from the Biennial sur- ; vey, 191S-1920. No. 22. The certification of teadiers governed by general State law« and regu- lations. Katherine M.Coolt, No. 23. Monthly record of educational publications, May-June, 1921. No. 24. Suggestions for the reorganization of the schools in Currituck County, N. 0. Katherlne M. Cook. No. 25, A school building progi'am for Athens^ Ga.- Alice B. Fernandez. :No. 26. iSducatiohal survey of Elizabeth City, N. O. W. T. Bawden. No. 27. Training for foreign service. Glenn L. Swiggett. No. 28. Educational survey of Wheeling, W. Va. W. T. Bawden. No. 29, Monthly record of educational publications, Sept^nber^ 1921. (Continued on pa^e S of cover.) Harvara ijtiivorcity, Libraryof the Graduate School ABnmONAL COPIES or nut rTTBUCATioir hat bb paocvmao wmou THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS OOVEBNMENT PBINTINO OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PEE COPY POREWORB. The articles contained In this bulletin on foreign-service training were assem- bled nearly three years ago. They were contributed by specialists, and deal with subjects which should be included in a fully developed major on foreign- sen'ice training for Government, business, social welfare, etc. These articles include, in addition to brief bibliographies of textboolss serviceable for use in college and of other books that may be helpful to general readers, the writers' opinions in regard to the subject matter, the limitation and manner and pre- sentation of this subject matter, its coordination with similar related subjects and amount of- time that should be given to it in college and the semester or semesters with college year when it can be best offered. This bulletin is to serve t*?"© purposes ; it should assist colleges to plan an adequate course of instruction on training for foreign service, and should enable university men now in the field of business to plan for a systematic reading course (Cf. Reading course in foreign trade, Reading course No. 17, Home Education, U. S. Bureau of Edu- cation, prepared by Glen Levin Swiggett). Much is naturally left unsaid in this bulletin, but what is said is for the most part brief, vital, and to the point. Unavoidable delays have prevented the earlier publication of this bulletin. The publication of these articles now, however, is timely. The statistics re- ported to this bureau for use by the Committee of Fifteen on Educational Preparation for Foreign Service, appointed by the United States Commissioner of Education, have registered since 1916 a steady growth in our higher institu- tions on the subject of educational preparation for foreign service, for commerce in particular. In October, 1921, the bureau reported courses of study in prepa- ration for foreign service in 70 colleges and universities. Of the 70 higher In- stitutions in which this special training was offered at that time, the 10 highest reported each more than 100 students taking foreign trade, a total enrollment for the 10 institutions of 2,255 students. In Commercial Education Circular No. 7, Bureau of Education, is printed a list of the 70 institutions offering some kind of training for foreign service. The technique of foreign trade, skill in the actual transaction involved in merchandising, shipping, and financing should be strengthened by an under- standing of the principles of commerce, of transportation, and banking; of motives that determine human conduct in social relationships ; of Governmental regulations and policies. Courses on practical exporting, therefore, should be supplemented with ample opportunity for the study of the modem languages, the social and commercial sciences, etc. The variety and character of instruction now being offered as preparation for foreign trade in our larger universities warrant the publication of a bulletin of this character. It Is the belief of the compiler that these articles will stimu- late still further the marked educational response to the demands of business for a trained and informed personnel in the conduct of our foreign service of Government, business, etc. And this variety and higher type of instruction ui IV FOREWORD. for foreign-service training now offered in our colleges and nniverslties is noted with increasing satisfaction by the Advisory Council and Committee of Fifteen on Educational Preparation for Foreign Service, In consideration of the many angles of approach to world trade, and the high level of intelligence, of visioii and character, of skill and information essential to its prose<*utiou by an indi- vidual corporation or nation. Glen Levin Swiggett, Chairman, Committee of Fifteen on Educational Preparation for Foreign Service, CONTENTS. Page. Foreword ui Part I. — Economics. Commercial organization for foreign trade — C 5f. Duncan 1 Industrial and commercial geography — J, Russell Smith 4 Business arithmetic — O, E, Van Tuyl 6 Commercial products — C. W, Wassam 7 Business English — George B. Hotchkiss 9 Advertising and salesmanship — Ouy R. Huhhart 11 Economic history of the United States — E. L. Bogart 13 Economic geography of foreign countries — George B. Roorback 15 Domestic markets and trade — Edward D. Jones 17 Foreign markets and trade problems — Paul T, Cherington 20 The chemistry of commerce — ♦/. H. James 24 Tropical resources and hygiene — Damaso Rivas 27 Business mathematics — Charles C, Grove 31 Business psychology and ethics — James E, Lough 35 The study of business adminstration and organization — Arthur E. Swan- son 37 Accounting applied to foreign trade — John R. Wildman 39 Statistics as applied to business — Horace Secrist 41 Foreign trade and tariffs — F. W, Taussig 44 Transi>ortatlon and shipping in their relation to foreign trade — Grover G. Huebner . 47 Port and terminal facilities — Roy S, MacElwee 49 Money and credit — Banking — Banking organization and practice — Chaun- cey R. Porter 52 Interational banking and foreign exchange — Ira B. Cross 55 Investments — Stock and produce exchange — Commission and brokerage practice — Henry R. Hatfield 56 Comparative finance and taxation — George E. Putnam 59 Comparative corporation laws and finance — Charles W. Gerstenherg 60 Insurance courses in the preparation for foreign trade work — Robert Riegel 63 Study of fiscal and customs legislation — L, S, Roice 65 Domestic and foreign, commercial policies — Simon Litman 70 Pakt II. — Government. The consular service—^. TT. Crecraft 75 Immigration and citizenship — Hattie P. Williams 77 International law— Gf. G. WUson 80 Commercial and maritime law — L. R. Alden 81 The economic background of modem world politics — A, P. Usher 83 V VI CONTENTS. The history of Europe since 1850 as a study preparatory for foreign service — St. George A. Siousaat 86 History of the Latin-American republics — 'W. R. Shepherd 88 The study of the history of the Near East and Northern Africa — A. I. Andreioa 90 The Far East and Australia— P. J. Treat 95 Political history of the United States— K L. Paxson C8 Comparative political institutions and political history of foreign couu- trie&— Z^'. ^. ogg 100 Diplomatic history of the United States— C. JB. Fish 102 The foreign relations of the United States — J, H. Latan6 105 Contemporary international relations—-!. S, Sers^iey 107 The study of American diplomacy, treaties, and foreign policy — A. B. Hart^ 109 Colonization and colonial policies — G. F. Andreics 114 Modern tntemationalism — S, K. ffombeck lid pAKT III. — Modern FoBBieN liAmirAUKH. The teaching of Chinese and Ja panese languages — E, T. WWia ms 123 The teaching of German and Dutch for foreign service — Herman n A Im sicdt- 125 The teaching of Romance languages — T. E. Francois 127 The teaching of Scandinavian languages — Giale Bothne 132 The teaching of the Slavic languages — Leo TTte/uT 136 Importance of Turltish and Armenian languages for foreign sprvicc — Abraham Tohannan 138 Part IV. — Pebiodical Litekature. Use of periodicals in education for foreisn traide service,- with blbUogm^ phies of periodicals and periodical articles. — C. J, Datia 141 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. PART I. ECONOMICS- COMMERCIAL ORGANIZATION FOR FOREIGN TRADE. By C. S. DtJNCAN, Asaistant ProfeMor of Commerdai Organization in the School of Commerce and Adfftini9irati9n, Uniter»ity of Chicago. Introductory. — Foreign trade is domestic trade carried bej'ond the national boundaries. In all fundamental respects the principles are the same for both ; in many incidental features they differ materially. In foreign trade as in domestic trade tkere are goods on their way to market ; in both instances trade is carried on for profit, business is on a pecuniary basis; in both there are producers, consumers, and middlemen; in both^ there are marlcets for buyers and sellers, marlcet prices, trade news,- advertising, exchanges, transportation^ wiyrehouses, financial organization, and all ether business paraphernalia^ These tilings may sometimes appear in foreign trade disguised by different names, but in all essential respects they are the same. The differences, however, are important Many businesses have made the mistake ot tr^^atlng the foreign market as they treat the home market. In doing so they have overlooked the differences that often count for so much in trade. One of the most obvious distinctions lies in. the language used; any extensive foreign trade will necessitate the use of a foreign tongue. While business between countries runs on a monetary standard, the units differ in name and value. There is the question of tariff; of a foreign Jurisdiction. There is tlie matter of business habits and customs, of illiteracy, of purchasing power; there are new and important factors in the trade organization, such as the conmiission house, the forwarding agent, or the comprador of China. It seems logical, therefore, that demestie and foreign trade should be closely related in every curriculum. And since the two subjects go hand in hand so great a part of the way, the latter might well foUew the former, as rounding ottt the tirade analysis. The student will grasp far more readily the principles of foreign trade if he understands thoroughly the principles of domestic trade. The mechanism of foreign exchange will not seem so strange after the mecha- nism for domestic financing is mastered. There is, neverthelesSr enough mate- rial tliat is distinct in the organisation for transacting foreign business to constitute a special study. Content of courses in commercial organization for foreign trade, — There are three parts to every kind of trade analysis: (1) A study of th» commodity or commodities ; (2) a study of the market; and (3) a study of the trade organiza- tion for carrying the goods to market. It must follow, therefore, that an intelligent understanding of the trade organization presupposes a knowledge of the goods and the market. Commercial organization, after aU, is not a fixed, unchangeable thing; it is a way of doing things by men who desire to attain a result most expeditiously and economically for themselves. However bound by tradition and eustom, this economic mecha- nism is affected constantly by the thinking: and tlie strategy of countless alert and eager minds that are seeking better ways of doing things. 1 2 TRAINIXG FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. 1. Surplus for export, — The first problem that presents Itself, then, is tlie kind of commodities that are available for export. The character and quantity of these goods will depend upon natuml resources and manufacturing capacity of the country and upon the general policy of the country as to whether it is willing to send out raw materials or is engaged in developing its fabricating facilities. An understanding of this subject demands a knowledge of commercial geogi'aphy first of all. If such knowledge can be presumed, then the ground- work is already laid for the course. It will be wise, in any case, to take up this subject even if only in review. 2. Markets. — If there are goods available for export, the problem immediately arises of finding a market for them. This is the next subject for study in a course on commercial organization for foreign trade. An analysis of foreign markets will involve an examination of character of the people, their standards of living, their trade habits and customs, their- purchasing power, what they produce for their own consumption, what they need from abroad. All sources of information on these subjects should be canvassed. The needs of these peoples for our surplus goods, both existing and prospective, will be surveyed. There will be the question, also, of competing and supplementary goods. There is the difficult matter of adapting our goods and our productive capacity to foreign demands. A market is after all only a chance to sell, if possible at a profit ; It is a demand for goods backed up by purchasing power, i. e., effective demand. This is what the merchant and manufacturer, both foreign and domestic, are seeking. 3. Trade oroanization. — What kind of organization has arisen to carry these available goods to the foreign market? The analysis of this organization should constitute the backbone of the course. For convenience of discussion this study will fall naturally into two parts : One of these will be the organization within the United States and on the sea for handling goods destined for a foreign market, the other will be the organization in the foreign country for receiving and distributing these goods. (a) Methods of contact: An early step for the merchant or manufacturer In marketing is the getting into contact with the prospective buyer. This is just as true of foreign trade as of domestic trade. There are many ways of doing this, some far more effective than others. One may try to make contact with his market through the mail, either by catalogue, by advertisements, or by sales letters, etc. If the business justifies the expense, either singly or through a combined sales organization under the provisions of the Webb bill, a salesman may be sent. Contact may be had through exhibitions or other means of showing samples. A descriptive anal^'sis should be made of all methods of contact. (6) The commission house: The foremost figure in the commercial organiza- tion for foreign trade In the past has b^n the commission house. What economic senices this middleman performs, whether his power increases or diminishes, what his elements of strength and what his weakness, are neces- sary subjects of study. (c) The forwarding agent: There is, too, the work of the forwarding agent. He may be merely a collector of goods from many small sources into carload lots in order to obtain lower rates. These goods may pass into the hands of a commission house at the port. Or the forwarding agent may do more than take from the manufacturer the worry and bother of making out documents, securing shipping space, and collecting against documents. He may become the foreign department of the exporter, acting in his name and identifying ECONOMICS. 8 himself in all respects with the interest of his principaL This specialized middleman should be studied in all the different attitudes that he assumes. id) The export department: As foreign business increases in volume, it may become advisable to organize a special foreign department in the business. Methods of organization, training, and equipment for the management of a foreign department are subjects for investigation. Many large businesses in the United States have aggressive and effective foreign trade departments that have been able to meet successfully their most powerful, adroit, and skilled competitors. (e) Foreign sales organization: Under the Webb Act that became a law in April, 191S, it is possible for American manufacturers to combine in organizing a sales department to handle their export business. The new development in foreign policy In the United States may have far-reaching consequences. It de- serves careful examination. (/) Transportation : There is also the subject of transportation to be taken up. A course in foreign trade should include a detailed study of shipping docu- ments. The ocean bill of lading, the insurance certificate, the consular invoice, and any other special papers that shippers are required to make out should be actually handled by the students until they are familiar with them. The measurement of shipping space and the buying and selling of space are also pertinent subjects. (g) Foreign distributing organization: The student should be taught some-* thing of the commercial organization in the foreign country. The indent mer- chant, the comprador, the foreign Jobber, the foreign retail merchant, whoever is iniluentinl in guiding the course of commodities into and out of foreign lands, is a character in the story of foreign trade. 4. Foreign exchange. — ^The best place to take up the subject of foreign ex- change Is in connection with a study of foreign trade organization. In this way it is possible to show the service performed by the bills of exchange. These should be studied with all the documents attached until they are no longer a mystery. Then the question of exchange rates may be taken up. 5. Merchant marine. — It is unavoidable to meet with the problem of a mer- chant marine in making a survey of foreign trade. In these latter days this is so interesting a subject that there is no difflculty in giving it a iflace In the course. 6. Tariff' — ^The foreign trade policy is inevitably affected by the tariff policyf This question arises in the foreign trade course, not as a political problem, but as a commercial problem, and should be discussed from that angle. A new point of view may be had by looking at tariff walls throughout the world, and by observing how the flow of trade is st opined or diverted by this means. 7. Marine insurance. — Some place should be given in the course in foreign trade to the subject of marine insurance. This survey ought to cover both the perils of the sea and the war-risk insurance. There is also the question of the Government's share in the risk as compared with that of private com- panies. The crj'ptic technical terms, such as "general average," "free from particular average," etc., should be explained. 8. The future of foreign trade for United States. — The study of foreign trade problems ought to lead to some conclusions as to the future foreign trade of the United States. It might be well to include a detailed study of certain possible markets. This line of investigation may be followed as far as it seems practicable. In any case, the study will enable one to view more intelligently the proper development of foreign trade, the best markets to approach, the best methods to use in reaching a market, the best adjustment of supply to demand. One will also inevitably learn how to find out what he wants to know. 4 TRAINING FOR FOaEIGN SERVICE. The next best thing to knowing facts la to know where to ftncl them. Some 8B€h coarse as has been indicated here will enable the investigator to work Hiore intelligently on his foreign trade problem. REFERRXCRS. Official Reports of National Foreign Trade Conventions, 1914-1921, published by Na- tional Foreign Trad«» Council. New York City. Course in foreign trade, 12 vols. New York, BusinesH Training Corporation. Hough, B. Olney. Practical exporting. A handbook for manufacturers and merchants. 6th ed. New Yoi>k. American BxDorter, 1926. 529 p. 8". Vedder. George C American metboas In foreign trade; a guide to export selling policy. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1919 . xii + 204 p. Whelpley, James D. Trade of the world. New Tioxkt Century Co., 1913. 436 p. 8». Whltaker, Albert C. Foreign exchange. New Yortr, Appleton ft Co., 1919. xiv + 646 p. »°. "Wolfe, Archibald J. STen and practice of international commerce. New York, Interna- tional Book Publishing Co., 1919. 548 o. S». Tlieory and practice of intemationar commerce. New York,. International Book Publishing Co., 1919; 548 p. INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. By .1. RrssELF. Smtth, Profensw of Economic Geoffraphy, Columhia Universifif. The place of geography in higher education is one of the miracles of the human mind. Our higher education is neai'ly always planned 'without any provision for knowletlge of the oarth in which we are to pass our mortal days. Land is land, water is water, and with tliose two sweeping facts as the approximate total of world information, men have for centuries thrown them- selves away for the want of a little geographic knowledge. Colonists, traders, missionaries, guided by ignorant faith, have planted themselves on inhospitable shores, where the colonies have shriveled, the traders have failed, and the mis- sionaries have died' — all for the want of the simple knowledge that should now be given in any high school or college course in geography. Geography as a part of education has suffered greatly because of the fact ttiat it led to no definite career. The chemist can get a job as a chemist, so chemistry gets quickly into our curriculum. The geographer, on the other hand, can rarely get a position as a geographer,, despite the vital importance of this science as a part of the preparation for business, finance in the broader sense, citizenshin^ and foreign trade. The business man, the financier, the trader, and the citizen need to be ^acquainted with the homeland and other lands as places in which man may live and make a living. This is a personally utilitarian value. Geograpliy has unappreciated cultural and social value as a part of general education. It is doubtful if any study rivals geography in its ability to serve as a foundation to so many other studies. History used to be the recorded antics of a few men. Now it is being interpreted more and more as movements, which are often little more than the attempts of men to adjust themselves to the factors of their geographic environment. Political economy and finance deal largely with industries and their ilevelopments, which in turn depend upon the resources and geographic conditions of certain parts of the earth's surface. It is high time we reached the end of the epoch when men will hare to- find out all these things for themselves, although carefully taught about the campaigns of Caesar, the development of medieval cities, the details of military history, or the platforms of parties as they tried to master some economic problem that had a geographic origin not mentioned in the chronicle. We have now entered the era of world trade, and therefore necessarily of world thinking. It is difficult to think about things of which we know nothing. It is necessary for us to know something about the world in which we live. ECOKOM1C9; 5 as a place In-wMch te make a living. Why Is one place good and anoClier place Rad? W'ftere are the good places and where are the bad jylaces? What are our geliitiong to these different parts of the eiotil? It is (Sfflcnlt to think of a kind of educated man who does not need l^rge blocks of knowledge in this field. Certainly the lawyer, the flnancJer, the factory manager, the Importer, the exporter, the legislator, the farmer needs it. Bven the divinity student needs it, if the mlsstonaries of the church hope to make themselves effective in foreign lands^ or even In other parts of their own country. • Good courses in economic geography should, from this time forward, become a part of the education of the man of general culture, as well as of special training. They should be alongside of history, literature, and foreign language, as well as aeeountlng; tran^tortation, business law, and the older sciences. ArranffemetU of geography courses in a college curriculum. — ^A student needs two kfaids of geography— flrst, general geography, and second, regional geog- nEpny. 1. Ocnerai geogrttphp, — ^Here he gets the tools of geographic understanding, jufst as the student of mathematics gets the tools of mathematical understand- lag, namely the power to add and subtract, multiply and dirfde. The man to whom the world shall be anything but a niysterious exterior, needs to know many things about climate, soil, land surface, thirt are applicable wherever these things ai^ear. This Is sometimes called systematic geography. There are two ways in which it may be taught. One, the simpler and the drier, is to give the«e tools of geography in an introductory course dealing with heat and cold, wind and rain, hill and plain, mountain, forest, soil, desert, swamp, etc. 2. Rsffi&ma ge^tprapHp. — Courses dealing with particular parts of the world natarally follow thte introductlt)n. They may be divided somewhat as follows : ITnlted 9tstte8 ssd Canada, Latin America, Europe and Asia, Africa and Austlsuft. Any two of the test four may easily be taken simultaneously, thus snugly fitting into a four-year course. Another way, possibly more interesting, probably more difficult, of teaching the some materlaf, is to Ihtersperse the general geography with a regional F^udy, as Ibr example, the course on the United States and Canada, which may be made iitrodoctofy by Including nearly ail of the dimatic and general geographic iaewledge BecesKary fer the understanding of this region and other regions. BibUogmphif, general. — ^After a student has had one or more courses in com- mercial and industrial geography, he will receive great benefit and showers of ttaCerlal if he will clip the commerce reports, from the Department of Cwnmegee, Wa^Ington, and three or four such magazines as the Review of Re?fewB^ WorWer Wortr, and Ooontry Gentleman. If he develops specialties, Iftey can be fallowed in Poole's Index to Periodic Literature, which covers the gtMUial field, and te the magazine, Industrial Management, which covers the more teehnfea! fieids^ but fat» a lai^e amount of material of value to any student €tf gieograpby. The whole field of geographic literature is ably covered in the Geographic Kevfew, puMlrted" monthly by the American Geographical Society of New York. Mo person really interested in the subject should miss this Journal. REFERBNCBS; €hUih9fm, fk d. Handhook of cotiimorclHl g^oj^raphy. Nc\^ Tortt, Lonprmans, Oreen St Co.* lOU- 66^ p. Tlito autkorltiettiTe £ii«tMi book \m a mine of accurate informatSon, with special reference to thp Old World, 6 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. Robinson, E. V. Commercial eeoirraphy. Chicago, Rand, McNally & Co., 1%10. 455. 48 p. Smith, J. R. Commerce and industry. New York, Holt ft Co., 1916. 596 p. These two commercial geographies are of high-school grade, although occasionally used in college. Industrial and commercial geography. New York. Henry Holt & Co.. 1913. 014 p. This book Is perhaps more philosophic than Chisholm, but contains fewer facts. It has chapters covering the leading industries, foreign trade, its routes and organization. These books are of college and university grade. Newspaper almanacs, such as World Almanac, contain good collections of statistics at much less cost than the above Statesman's Year Book. New York, Macmillan Co. For ready reference; for knowledge of population, area, trade statistics, and governments of all parts of the world, thui book has few rivals for convenience. Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture. Free through your Member of Congress. Valuable collection of statistics of agricultural production In all countries. BUSINESS ARITHMETIC. By G. H. Van Tuyl, Instructor in Buaincsa Mathematics, Extension Teaching, Columbia Univergity. Probably not less thao 95 per cent of all mathematical operations, either in domestic or foreign trade, come under the general head of arithmetic ratlier than that of any other branch of mathematics. Accuracy and facility of arithmetical computation are, therefore, of prime Importance to one engaged in any commercial enterprise. Nol; only should one be accurate and facile in handling arithmetical operations but he should have a thorough knowledge of the subject matter of arithmetic, so that, in the interpretation of problems, he may not only Interpret correctly but he may not, at the same time, misapply the principles of arithmetic to the solution in hand. Emphasis should, therefore, be first placed upon accuracy of calculation, and, second, upon facility of calculation. These two topics may be considered together because each reacts upon the other, and increase in skill in either adds ability in the other. How shall one become accurate and facile in making computations? There are one subjective and two objective phases in the process. The subjective phase has to do with the power of concentration. No one may hope to succeed in work of this kind who can not bring his complete and full attention to bear upon the work. The objective phases have to do with repetition, or drill, and the application of simple, practical short methods of calculation. Other things being equal, the fewer figures one is required to make in a given calculation, the fewer will be the errors, and consequently the greater degree of accuracy. The detection and elimination of errors frequently take more time than was required for the original calculation. Accuracy and facility of calculation are of little value in and of themselves if their possessor has not also the ability to interpret problems as they arise and apply thereto correct arithmetical principles. Hence one should be ready and accurate in interpretation of problems. Ck)rrect interpretation depends upon a wide general knowledge of business customs, together vTith an exact and definite knowledge of the principles of arithmetic and of mathematics. A general knowledge of commercial law, accounting, and economics is most im- portant. A thorough knowledge of algebra is valuable. A course of study should Include thorough drill in the fundamental opera- tions Involving integers and common and decimal fractions^ The efliciency of the calculator may be greatly increased \}}[ the application of the many short methods of handling these operations. A study of the relation of numbers, or, as it Is frequently expressed, of aliquot parts, should be made. The study of aliquot parts should in no wise be limited to those parts whose base is 100 (that is, 100 cents to the dollar, or to 100 per cent). The study should include allquots of many numbers. The ECONOMICS. 7 principle of aliqnots may be advantn^eously applied to many numbers, and to many operations in multiplication and division. Simple interest calculations are best made by use of this principle. Percentage must be mastered. From percentage on through Its applications the course should include those topics having to do directly with foreign commercial enterprise. Among the most Important are the following: Metric system of weights and measures and their English equivalents. Foreign exchange, covering a knowledge of the coinage laws of the countries one deals with. Rates of exchange and method of handling same. Gold imports and exports. Effect of time on rates of exchange. Use of con- version, and interest and bill stamp tables. Customs regulations of the United States and of countries dealt with. Methods of reckoning duties. Equation of accounts. Gash balance, by the United States, English, and French methods. Compound interest, and applications to investments, present values, annuities, sinking funds, etc. BEFBRBNCES. There are comparatively few books on the market that are worthy of serious consideration in work of this kind. The following are among the best. Edgerton. Edward I. Business mathematics. New York, Ronald Press Co., 1921. 305 p. Finney, H. A., and Brown, J. C Modern business arithmetic. New York, Honry Holt ft Co., 1016. 488 p. Aioore, John Henry. New commercial arithmetic. New York, Amerlc^an Book Co., 1904. and Miner, George W. Practical business arithmetic. Boston, Qinn ft Co., 1906 Packard, S. S. New commercial arithmetic. New York, 8. S. Packard. Smith. . Arithmetic of business. New York, Lyons & CarnahaL. Van Tuyl, George Henry. Complete business arithmetic. New York, American Book Co.. 1911. 415 p. Walton, Seymour, and Finney, H. A. Mathematics of accounting and finance. New York, Ronald Press Co., 1922. 274 p. COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS. By C. W. Wassam, Assistant Professor of Commerce, University of Iowa, A course which has receive capital, etc.; total world's production, and production by separate states or countries; importance in compnriwin with similar articles: intemntlonal trade; methods used in marketing; by-products; and future of the industry. REFEEENCB8. Cofnmercki^l PrwNicto. Brtgham, A. P. Coiniii«reiftl geoirropliy. BMttm. Ginn & Co., 191 1. 409 p. Clierlngtoii, R. T. The wool industry. Chicago, A. W. Shaw Co.. 1.016. 261 p. CfaisboTm. O. O. Handbook of commercial geography. New iTork, Loxigmana, Green & Co., 19U. 666 p. Dondllnger, P. T. Book of wheat. New York. Ornnge Judd Coi, 1008. Freeman. William O., and Chandler, Stafford B. World's commercial prodacts. Bast^B* Ginn it Co., 1907. Nystrom, P. H. Textiles. New YoA, D. Appleton & Co., 1^16. p. 886. PUman'8 Oobbod canunodities of oommerce. NeiT Y«tic, 84r l«aac Pitman A ScmA, 4 vols. Bedwny. J. W. Commercial geogrsplhy. New Tork, Ctiarlec Bcrifcner'B Sons, 1991. 423 p. Koblnson, E. V. Oommerdsl geography. Chicago, Rand, McNaTly ft Co., 1910. 45* + 48 > Smith, J. R. Commerce and Industry. New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1916. 596 ja, Todnstrlal and commerolai jseography. New Yotk. Henry Holt A Co.. 1918. 914 p. The world'B food resources. New York, Henry Uolt A Co.. 1919. 634 p. Toothairer. Charles "BL, Commercial ra-w materials. Boston. Oinn ft Co. Trott«r, ftpeueer, G^«gn»hy of commeroe. New Yoric, Macntttlaa Co« World's almaaac. New xorki Frcss Publishing Co. Fiikmationt »/ th€ United Sta$ea €^09emmmt. CoAoerce B^fKniPts, De^artne^t of Cpartmont of Agriculture, mperlal Reports of the Census Barean. Dppartment of Oottnerce. Statistical Abstract of United States, Department of Commerce. 8tatfetisok of tlia Department of Agriculture. Departiaent of Agriculture. BUSINESS ENGLISH. By GioftGR "BiTsmm Hotcrxiss. Pirvftnor sf Bvafns^^ BngifUh in 2few York Vniv^rwHy. Only recently has the subject of business English begun to be recognized as a proper purt of school and university training for foreign trade and other fields of business. It Is making headway rapidly, however, because the usual coarse in English compositioD lias not paid much attention to letters, r^orts, and the other kinds of messages commonly used in business. Some special stndy of these foriu% with practice in their use, is obviously desirable during the period of educational preparation^ and the business man rightly expects it of those who enter nis employ. Although the subject of business English is too new to be standardized, there is at least an agreement that its requirements differ from those of literary English composition sufficiently to warrant a separate place in the eurrlcolum. There Is al^o a general agreement as to the fundamental differences and the method of treatment needed. Business English is distinctly a utilitarian art, practiced for profit. Its (deals are the strictly business ideals of eflidency — maximum results at mini- mum expenditure. Unfortunately, this has too often meant simply an attempt to reduce production costs. There is a growing tendency now to consider the letter as a producer rather than a product, and to give more attention to the task of increasing its resultfulness. Resultfulness, too, is being regarded not merely as direct response, but the more indefinite but invaluable good wiU of the reader. Business English is more than businesslike English; it is boshiess-building English. On this simple conception, simpler perhaps in theory than in practice, tlie whole structure of business English is built. The study itself properly includes three main divisions — principles, technique, and methods. The first and most essential principle is that business English is less a matter of good expression than of good impression; hence should be written from the reader's viewpoint. Economy of his time and energy is necessary. This in- volves proper adaptation of the substance and style of the message to the reader's viewpoint, character, and mood. This requirement, to be sure, is not peculiar to business English, but in business English the requirement is more Important and more apparent than elsewhere. It assumes special importance In correspondence with foreign firms, whose ideas and ideals sometimes differ ftidlcally from those of American business men. The second main division — technique — includes a careful examination of all Btructural details, including paragraphs^ sentences, and words. These are matters requiring constant revision, even with those whose early training has been thorough. They should be studied as means to an end, rather than as niles to be followed. Business English has also certain differences in require- ments, notably In such matters as length of paragraphs and sentences, and in vocabulary. n 10 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. In the third division — methods — ^the student really enters the study of business transactions. Business Ehiglish is literally one-half business. There is nothing more fruitless than to write for the sake of writing. Training in business English, therefore, must give some understanding of the ordinary business situations that require letters, and some knowledge of the suitable method of procedure. Right substance is in business English a preliminary to good style. It has been found in teaching the subject that if the student secures a fair knowledge of the methods that are best adapted to the accomplishment of his purpose, and has the right viewpoint toward his reader, development of good style comes naturally and easily. A large amount of practice is absolutely essential in a business English course. Such practice should be in the form of solving business problems rather than merely writing letters. The problem states a typical situation which must be handled in such a way as to wia the favorable response of the reader and at the same time maintain or restore his good wilL There is some advantage in requiring that a part of this practice work be done in the classroom within a limited time. In actual business, writing must often be done under pressure, and it has proved helpful to apply that pressure during the period of training. The degree of success in training students in business English depends not a little upon the kind of criticism given by the instructor. This should not ovei^ emphasize details of form to the neglect of the more vital considerations of substance, attitude, and tone. Wherever possible, criticism should be construc- tive and accompanied by specific examples that show the student how a much better impression could have been secured by different handling. The oral practice of dictating letters aloud is valuable, not only for the confidence It gives, but also for the opportunity it affords to develop speaking ability. There are certain handicaps to the teaching of business English. In the first place, most of the instructors at the present time have to be taken from the ranks of the academically trained. Their traditions have usually not been the traditions of the business man, either In aims and methods, or in standards. Before they can teach effectively, it is necessary for them to discover how busi- ness men actually use English. Nor can they rest content with that. The average business letter Is not more than 50 per cent efficient, and the teadier can not safely take at random letters even from good business houses as fairly representative of the ideals to be sought. He must analyze, weigh, and com- pare letters, and also get figures about results. In point of fact, business men themselves have been eagerly searching for ways to improve the quality of their letters and those of tlieir employees. Thousands of them are to-day studying business English through the use of textbooks and extension and correspondence courses. At the present, time the list of textbooks available in the field is somewhat limited, and the majority of these were written primarily for high school rather than university and college purposes. Some of them, however, are equally suitable for the higher schools, and the list will no doubt be rapidly extended. Another handicap is the difficulty of putting in the hands of students an adequate body of specimens of good letters and reports. Specimen books of exposition, narration, and the like are of well-recognized value in the teaching of college composition. Specimen books in business English will no doubt make their appearance in the near future and prove of equal assistance. Following is a bibliography of the books and other material in the field which are available at the present time: ECONOMICS. 11 REFERENCES. BM9ine8s English and Correspondence, AlthoQse, C. O. Bnslness letters. Philadelphia, Penn Pub. Co., 1910. 208 p. Altmaler, C. I/. Commercial correspondence and postal Information. New York, Mac- millan Co., 1918. 252 p. Baker, J. T. Correct business letter writing and businesB English. Ehranston, 111., Correct English Pub. Co., 1911. 205 p. Bambnrgh, W. C. Ttalks oh business correspondence. Boston, Little, Brown & Co., 10lf». Banks, E. Putnam's correspondence handbook. New York, 6. P. Putnam's Sons, 1914. 253 p. Barrett, C. R. Business English and correspondence. Chicago, American School of Correspondence, 1914-20. 108 p. Barholomew, W. E., and Ilurlbut. Floyd. The business man's English. New York, Macmillan Co., 1920. 840 p. Brown, R. W. and Be.rnes, N. W. The art of writing English. New York, American Book Co., 1913. 382 p. Buhlig, Rose. Business ESngllsh. Boston, D. C. Heath ft Co., 1914. 881 p. Business correspondence library. 3 Tola. Chicago, A. W. Shaw Co., 1908. Bntler, R. 8., and Burd, H. A. Commercial correspondence. New York, D. Appleton ft Co., 1920. 531 p. Cassell, R. J. The art of collecting. New York, Ronald Press Co.. 1913. 261 p. Cody, Sherwln. Business letter writing. Chicago School of English, 1904. • How to deal with human nature in business. New York, Funk ft Wagnalls, 1915. 488 p. How to do business by letter and advertising. Chicago, School of English. Success in letter writing. Chicago, A. C. McClurg Co. Coarse in business correspondence. Chicago, A. W. Shaw Co., 1916. 3 yols. Coarse in business English. Chicago, La Salle Extension University. Crissey, F. Handbook of business correspondence. Chicago, Charles C. Thompson Co., Davis, R, and Lingham, C. Business English and correspondence. New York, Glnn ft Co., 1914. 810 p. Dwyer, Ion E. The business letter. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, Co., 1914. 177 p. Bytinge, Louis V. Writing business letters which get the business. Boston, Postage Pub. Assoc., 1914. 89 p. Gardner, Edward H. ETffective business letters. New York, Ronald Press Co., 1915. 876 p. Hagar, H. A. Applied business English. New York, Qregg Publishing Co., 1914. 344 p. Hammond', H. w. Style-book of business English. New York, Isaac Pitman and Sons, 1916. 250 p. Hotchkiss, 6. B. Course In business English. New York. Business Training Corporation. • and Drew, Celia A. Business English. New York, American Book Co., 1916. 384 p. and Kilduff, E. J. Advanced business correspondence. New York. Harper ft Bros., 1921. 513 p. _Sk or husiness isngii U>wl8, E. H. Business English. Chicago,. La Salle Extension University, 1915. 205 + 79 p. Handbook of business English. Rev. ed. New York, Harper ft Bros.. 1920. 231 p. MacCIintock, P. L; Essentials of business English. Chicago, La Salle Extension Uni- versity, 1914. 278 p. HacCracken. H. N., and Sandison, Helen E. Manual of good English. New York, Mac- millan CO., 1917. 885 p. McJobnston, Harrison. Business correspondence. New York, Alexander Hamilton Insti- tute, 1917. 828 p. (Modem business series.) Hanlev. J. M., and Powell, J. A. Manual for writers. Chicago, Chicago University Press, 1^18. 284 p. Morehouse. W. R. Bank letters that build business. New York, Bankers* Pub. Co., 1917. Opdycke, John B. English of commerce. New York. Scribner's Sons, 1920. 435 p. Raymond. Charles H. Modem business writing. New York, Century Co., 1921. 476 p. Saunders, A. G., and Creek, H. L. literature of business. New Yorkf Harper ft Bros., 1920. 518 p. Smart. W. K. How to write business letters. Chicago, A. W. Shaw Co., 1916. 160 p. Standardized course in English. New York, Pace ft Pace. Webster, B. H. English for business. New York. Newson ft Co., 1916. 440 p. Wiers. Charles B. How to write a business letter. Buffalo, N. Y., C. R. Wlers, 1915. 125 p. Wooley, Edwin C. Handbook of composition. Boston, D. C. Heath ft Co., 1907. ADVERTISING AND SALESMANSHIP. Outline of Practice Work in Technique of Business Courses at Columbia University. By Guy Richard Hubbabt, Lecturer on Advertising, Columbia University. Courses In advertising and salesmanship have been established at Columbia University for several years. They are given in the school of business and the dlTlsion of extension teaching. Aim and purpose. — From the start the primary aim has been to give students a firm grounding in the fundamentals of advertising and selling, and practice 82186**— 22 2 12 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. In the application of principles to definite gales and advertising problems. A secondary aim has been to give students an accurate viewpoint regarding the use and value of advertising and selling as factors in the distribution of goods. In accordance with the above alms a method of instruction has been developed which takes into account the special needs of tliree types of students: Those with no acquaintance with business, the purely academic student; those who have had experience in other than the advertising or sales department of a business house; those who are employed as juniors In the advertising or sales departments. Scope (ind method, — Instruction includes the study of merchandising, to give the student a definite understanding of goods; advertising, to enable him to tell the story of the goods he has to distribute ; salesmanship, to ground him in the value of selling principles and methods ; sales management, to give him a flrm grasp of the methods of organizing and managing forces of salesmen. Instruc- tion in advertising covers all phases of national, trade, technical, and specialty advertising; instruction in salesmanship covers all phases of retail, wholesale, and specialty selling. A third of the time involved In instruction Is devoted to the presentation of sound theory ; a third Is devoted to the study of principles and their direct application to si^ecified problems in selling and advertising; a third is devoted to actual practice, in so far as this is possible in an academic environment, and to special lectures on certain broad phases of business practice. Special valtie of traininff, — Business men are awakening to the pressing need of better selling, more efficient personal effort on the part of individual members of the sales force, because efficient selling means more productive selling at the same or less cost. Increased efficiency must have its basis in elementary training which embodies the spirit as much as the principle of modem business practice. It is here that academic training can best benefit the future employer of young women and men, especially if the instruction and training are given by men of broad prac- tical experience who are in business and who are not out of touch with youth. It costs the average business house as much to train a man for a position requiring creative and constructive ability as the first year's salary Is worth; and that means preliminary training, the training requisite for holding a i)osl- tion merely, to say nothing of measuring up to its requirements. University courses in business really fit men for the beginning of their future growth and usefulness In business activities. The training is of much greater value than an equal number of years of apprenticeship minus the academic training, except, of course, in purely mechanical pursuits. The theory, once held by a certain type of employer, that four years of practical work is better for a salesman than an equal amount of special training under capable Instruc- tors is frayed out. This, because practical training alone gives only practice, while practice plus broadened outlook and accurate viewpoint, such as only specialized training gives, Is what makes the young worker In business efficient In the real sense. This point of view is kept constantly in the foreground in the instruction given at Columbia University in the courses in merchandising, advertising, sales- manship, and sales management. Textbooks are used sparingly, but reference works by the leading business writers are used to supplement lectures and practice work. A national need. — Educators would do well to encourage the popular presenta- tion of accredited courses in business practice through the pages of newspapers, much in the same way that courses in domestic science, physical culture, and comic features are exploited. This would do much to impress the average busi- ness man with the value of special training, and it would put before the future ECONOMICS. 13 tpplicant for bnsisess positfoofl the need for tlK>rongii training as a prepara- tion for practical worlr. T^i years ago sach a thing would have be«i im« practicable, dne to the lacic of sound methods of instroction. To-day it is as fessfble as it is practical, in view of the ftiet that uniTersities, colleges, and even bosfness institutions of a progressive type have developed capable nien and erofved metliods of nnquestioned merit. EGONOMIC HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. By B. L. BOGAsr, Professor of Bconomics, UMffcrs^ of Illinois. The subject "Economic history of the United States" is prescribed for those students who take the course in foreign commerce at the University of Illinois. This indicates in part the importance which is here attributed to this subject. Personally, I regard such a subject as fundamental in preparation for general business or more specifically for foreign trade and foreign service of the Gov- cninent The aeceesary backgrouiid of fact and of historical development in tbe gMfwik of the Nation's industries, conunerce, agriculture, and other fields of enterprise are here secured. Especially valuable in such a training is the gataiing of pro|»er sense of historical perspective^ which enaUee the student to diserimiaate between events of ephemeral and those of permanent importance, to place things in their proper relations to each other, and to discern the direc- tion of present-day movements. An analysis of trade conditions would gain immensely in value if it were based upon a thorough knowledge of the post; indeed, if tiie vrriter laciced this knowlwige he might easily draw errom^ous inferences and make an incorrect analysis. For the American student of foreign commerce not merely is an aoqiuiintance with the history of commerce la the narrow sense desirable, but also a thorough comprehension of the growth and development of our agriculture, mining, forestry, and fisheries, of our manufactures, tariff legislation, transportation, and banking, and of the organi- zation of capital and labor. The economic history of the United States is not an isolated phenomenon, but throws valuable light upon the march of events in comtries, like those in Sontii Amerlea, which are now passing through similar stages of isdustrial development. hi the University of Illinois the course in economic history of the United States is given in the second semester of the freshman year. It is preceded by a course on economic resources and is followed in the sophomore year by tlie usual course in principles of economics. It does not seem desirable to let flrst- jear students take the last-named subject, hnt those who register for the busi- ness or commercial curricula are eager to have some economics from the beginning. In the course In economic history we feel that they secure a deslr- i^e ONnblnation of £act and theory, of induction and deduction. The historical background which they obtain is of great service to them in their further study of economic principles and problems. One semester only is given to this course, but they are subsequently given opportunities to elect further courses la the eeonomic history of England and of modem Europe, as well as a more advanced course in that of the United States. * The manner of presentation is oral qulzaes based upon a textbook and a book of collateral readings. Ijcctures have been given up in order to permit all the time to be used for class discussion. The course Is by no means regarded fls merely informatlonalr birt rattier as affording training in accurate presenta- tioR of facts, hi correct inductive reasoning, and ta causal relationships. Written ez^relses are used In various ways. The writer has even postetl a list of historical novels dealing with different phases of our economic development in order to vivify the subject matter but the reading of these is entirely optional. 14 TEAINING FOB FOBEIGN SEEVICE. While the subject is taught by members of the d^artment of economics and is treated as an economic discipline, every effort is made to relate it to the other courses in the curriculum so as to prevent duplication, and also to the other social sciences, especially the regular courses in American history. For many of the other economic courses economic history is regarded as an introduction. The historical framework is here provided into which later other courses may be fitted which shall elaborate some special subject. The course in economic history seems the one best adapted to serve as the general introduction which shall link together the rest of the work of the student in the college of com- merce and business administration. REFERENCES. Oeneral. Bogart, E. L. Economic history of the United .States. 4th ed. New York, Longmans, Green & Co., 1922. and Thompson, C. M. Readings In the economic history of the United States. New York, Longmans, Green & Co., 1916. Callender, G. S. Selections from the economic history of the United States, 1765-1860. Boston, Ginn & Co.. 1909. Coman. Katharine. Industrial history of the United States. New York, Macmillan Co., 1910. 461 p. Depew, C. M., €' that the student will have an understanding knowledge of the land and Its people in order that he can form his own judgments concerning its economic and commercial poesibfUtles and needs. Be his interests in the country, commercial, financial, industrial or political, the student will then at lexust have a background that should help him in the formation of sound decisions and the planning of wise policies when the occasion arises. REFKRENCE*'. /. Houth ani Gentrnl America. Bowman, I. South Amertwi. Chloafro, Kuml. McNally & Co., 1915. 354 p. Bryre, JAmen. South America. New York, Ma«mll]aa Co., 1914. 475 p. Calderon, FranoiPco Garcia. I/atin America; Its rise and progress. New York, Charles Rcrinner'8 Sons. 1013. 40« p. DawROB. W. H. History of South America. Denis. Pierre. Bra^ill. New York, Charles »oritoef*» Bone, 1911. Eder» P. J. ColoHifeia. Now York, Charles S^ribner's Sons, 1913. 312 p. Elliott. G. P. R. Chile. New Yorlc. Charles Scrlhner*s Sons. Elliott^ L. B. Brazil. To-day and to-morrow. New York, Maxrmtllan Co., 1017. 336 p. Enock. C. Be^lnald. The republics of South and Central America. New York, Chartos Scrlhner's Bonn. 1913. 544 p. _. . Hftl«e7. P. M. BailwayB of South and Central America. New York, F. E. Fitch, 1914. 183 p. iThls statement was prepared at the time the writer was assistant professor of geog- raphy at the University of Pennsylvania. EcoiroMrcs. 17 HarrlB, Otrrard. €«iltral AiDMrtea fw aii export field. U. S. Bureau of Foreign and DomeHtlc Commerce, Special agent serieK no. 11. 'J. Washington, D. C, Supt. of Docnmentff. West Indies as aa export field. U. S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Coni- merce, Special ageut series no. 141. TTa.^ihingtoii. P. (\. Supt. of Documents. Hill, Robert T. Cuba and Porto Rico and other islands of West Indies. New York, Century Co., 1898. KoH>el, W. H. tJmgnay. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, IMl. 360 p. Paraguay. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1917. 348 p. Martin. P. F. Slexleo in the twentieth century. 2 vols. New York, Dodd, Mead & Co.. 1907. Martinez, Alberto B.. and Lewandowski, Maurice. Argentina in the twentieth century. New York, Charles Serlbfiei^s Sons, 191 S. 876 p. BoRM, E. A. South of Panama. New York. Century Co., 1915. S96 p. ToWer. W. S. A journey through Argentina. Bulletin of the Geographic Society of Philadelptiia, July, 1914. Wnlle, Paul. Bolivia. New York. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1914. 407 p. Willis, Bailey. Northern Patagonia. New York, Charles Scribner*s Sons, 1914. Wilson. Otto. South Aoiferlca as an export field. U. S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Special agent series no. 81. Washington, D. C, Supt. of Documents, 1914, 216 p. //. Europe. Barker. J. BlUs. Modern Ctermany. New York. E. P. Dutton A Co., 1915. 852 p. ChLiholm^. O. Europe. Philadelphia, J. B. iJppfncott Co., 1901. 2 vols. Dawson, W. H. Tbe eroiut!on of modern Germany. New York, Cluirles iikrrlbner's {^ons, 1914. 503 p. History of Bontk America. Day, Cltve. History of commerce. New York^ LongmanB, Green & Co., 1914. 640 p. Deecke, Wilhelm. Italy. New York, Macmlllan Co., 1904. GIbblns, H. de B. Industry in Eiiglaml. .Hd ed. New York, Oiarh^s Scribner's Sons. Ho^artb, D. Q. The nearer east. New York. D. Appleton & Co., 1902. Jolknson. D. W. "iPopography and strategy in the War. New York, Henry Holt k Co., 1917. 211 p. Leroy-Beaulieu, H. J. B. A. Empire of tlie TsarS. New York, G. P. Putnflms Sons. 9 vols. Lrde. Lionel W. The continent of Europe. New York, Macmlllan Co., 1913. 446 p. MacFarlane. Jofcn. Economic geography. New York, MncmUlan Co.. 1915. 560 p. Maekliider, H, J. Britain and the British seas. New York, I>. Appleton & Co.. 1902. Oeg. F. A. Economic development of modern Europe. New York, Macmlllan Co., 1917. 657 p. Partsch, .J. F. M. Central Europe. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1903. Profliero, R. B. The pleasant land of France. New York. B. P. Dutton ft Co., 1908. KIplev, W. Z. Kaces of Europe. New York, D. Appleton ft Co. Smitn, J. Russell. Commerce and industry. New York, Henry Holt ft Co., 1916.* 696 p. Torwer, Cba^les. (^emany of to-day. New York, Henry Holt ft Co., 1913. 258 p. Webster, W. C. A general history of commerce, Boston, Ginn & Co., 1903. Whelpley, J. D. Trade of the world. New York. Century Co., 1913. 436 p.** rtl. Asia and Australia. Baker, Henry D. Australia. U. S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Special con.. C. Supt. of Documents, 1911. — — British India. TJ. S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Special consular report no .72. Washington, D. C, Supt. of Documents, 1915. HkfW Zealand. U. 8. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Special con- sular report no. 57. Washington, D. C, Supt. of I>ocumentR, 1012. 220 p. RftShford, James W. China, an Interpretation. New York, Abingdon Press, 1916. *620 p. Ireland, ABeyne. The far eastern tropics. Bo*rton, Houghton Miffiln ('o., 11)0."). Herbertson, A. J. Oxford survey of British Empire. Oxford, Clarendon Press. 1014. Hogarth, D. G. The nearer east. New York, D. Appleton ft Co., 1902. Holderness, Sir Thomas WUliam. The peoples and problems of India. New York, Henry Holt ft Co^ 1912. 256 p. g«Idlch, Sir TbosniS H. India. New York, D. Appleton ft Co., 1905. eane, A. H. Asia. Pbiladelphia, J. B. Llpplncott ft Co. 2 vols. King, F. H. Fanners ot forty centuries. Madison. Wis., Mrs. F. H. King, 1911. 441 p. Little, A. J. The far east. New York, Oxford University Press (American Branch), 1905. Mill, H. R. InternatloAal geosrapby. New York, D. Appleton ft Co., 1909. Moi-se. H. B. Trade and administration of China. New York, Longmans, Green ft Co., 1913. 466 p. Nltobe, I. O. The Japanese nation. New York. G. P. Putnams Sons, 1912. 334 p. Porter, Robert. The full recognition of .Tapan. New York, Oxford University Press (Amerlean Btfaneh). 1911. 789 p. Ross, E. A. The changing Chinese. New York. Century Co., 1911. 3f)6 p. INiifth. .T. Russell. Industrial and eommerctel geograpby. New York, Henry Holt ft Co., _ 1913. 914 p. ; . . Worcester. D. C. The PftfTlpplnes, past and present. New York, Macmlllan Co., 1914. 3 ^It. FQRn^N AND DOMESTIC MARKETS AND TRADE. By BbWARD D. Jonbs, Professor of Business Administration^ University of Michiffan. Out problem at the University of Michigan, in sivii^K specialized economics courses, is to adapt them to the requirements of undergraduate students. Our 18 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. students are taking a regular college course, and are electing programs of courses In economics as a semiprofessional element which must be adjusted to the other requirements of a general college course. Our work is given in the college of literature, science and the arts, and not in a separate school or department of commerce and business administration. This limits us mate- rially in the development of the technical aspects of subjects connected with special occupations. In a course on foreign trade conducted last semester, probably not one of the 55 students would ever have any direct and immediate connection with foreign trade. Our inland location, and our non-professional character, indicate a different conception of a course from that which would be appropriate for a commercial school in a seaboard city. Nevertheless, since this course w^as offered for the first time, and since so much has been said in the discussions of the national foreign trade conventions about courses of study with teeth in them, it was decided to devote one-half of the time to technical questions, and one-half to general foreign trade policies. There were presented, therefore, in the first half of the semester, such sub- jects as the present situation of American manufacturing industry with refer- ence to outlets, the probable advantage of American industry in international competition, the method of making a systematic analysis of a foreign market, advertising in foreign trade, the training and handling of foreign salesmen, the use and protection of trade-marks, the organization of a foreign sales de- partment, the arguments pro and contra with reference to allowing combi- nations in foreign trade, the technique of a sale (including terms, weights and measures, moneys, guarantees, etc.), transportation and shipping (including a description of all the documents required), credit and finance (bank credits, book accounts, drafts, etc.). To this was attached a discussion of branch banks as competitive agencies. This section of the subject was closed up by study- ing the effect of foreign investments, the various forms of Government aid available to the American exporter, the various types of tariff in existence, and the general character of the network of commercial treaties in existence. The functi profound lack of elementary instructiona in the underlying: principles, and by the spread of a ttamber of miaconceptiona All of the^e make the problems of e<1ucat!on in foreign trade more serious than they otherwise woukl be. The question is often raised why the Aiaertcan nianafacturer who di9{)laya sadi a higli de^s^ree of ability in developing his domestic business has made such a pitiable record in many Instances when he has undertaken to do foreign trading. Hie fact tliat such cases hare occurred is be.von depend largely upon, the tropical forest for the common timber supply. The above brief outline of the natural resources of the Tropics^ the greater part of which still remains undeveloped, clearly shows the potential Lty of wealth of these countries. Taking Brazil,, for instance^ with an area of 8,524,770 square kilometers, a little more than the area of the United States* of America excluding Alaska, it has a population of ooly one-fifth of that country, or about 20,000,000 inhabttanrtsw This naturally leaves vast areas of undeveloped land the price of which a few years ago varied from 25 cents to $2 per acre, and the same is true of other tropical countries. TBOPICAL HTOrENE. Various have been tlie views advanced from time to time as to the cause of neglect by which for generations the resources of troi)lcal America have remained undeveloped. But why make theoretical speculations when a more simple and logical one is evident, namely unheal thfulness. That healthfulness is the most potent factor in determlniiig the development of a^ country or a continent, and that upon it depends the achievement of any enterprise, admits of no doubt We need only to mention, the failure of the French Government to build the Panama Canal, because of the preval^iee of disease in that zone, contrasted with the rapid and marvelous accomplishment of the Government of the United States of America after the sanitation of that region. Healthfulness in fact has determined the development and molded the destiny of the human race and has been the real determining and limiting factor in the building of empires. The diseases common to the Orient were nn insurmountable barrier to Alexander and to the Crusaders* Cholera ajvl other diseases of India have been the chief obstacles in the development and settlement of that country by Europeans, and the same is true of sleeping sick- ECOSOMXCS. 29 nefli^ xaaSsaim, etev cf e^ttral Afrtcs. Fdr the same remBeo the Anglo-Saxon and other races of northern Europe hame nmde pea*nianent setttemeiit in North iEDHoriea^ as ^vrell as ths Lsttii raic« at soittfaem Borope, of tropleal and sub- tropical America ; in other words each race has followed tii^e natnra-l channels 9i emtgnitiaii to sbnilc^ or nearly conesponcUng smrnrandrngs. But obore all, if &nvpe tti a whole ooinqDered America and made pemoz^nt settlement of tii£i eontinwitv it was because she was armed with the most powerfal weapon o>f dSamst the diseatse she lnq)orted, which raixidly spread among the natives with fatal comsqoeneau ' Snudlpex in 15aT extenntnated whole tribes in the West Indies^ a few years later depopulated San Domingo and destroyed 3«56O,O0d people in Mexico (Hlrsh)r and the same happened In otiber countries. I^iia was true sdso of other infeetioBS and bacterial dtesBwes^ bat the protagonist in this evolutional tragedy was toberde bacill&R. Most bactertsl diseases lewt^e a certain decree of isHmmityr which is not the case with tuberculosis. The CtaXbefs of the West Indies are nearly extinct. The Indians of North America are raiildly disappearing, as are also the aborigines of cold and temperate South Amevica. The Indians oonkd not In a few generatiMis undergo Budi an evolution as to acquire an immunity against tuberculosis which the BBRipean has accomplished by natural seleetion in thousands of years. This dnriy shows that diseases and not the sword have been tlte real deciding factors in the bollding of empiresb Bat the era of bacteria as decisive of empires, as admirably described by field, Is past. The time of discovering new continents and lands, of great con- qssite, i» ciostni^ and dlSMSss have spread all orver tiie world. Bacteriology sod psrasitokigy have not ooljr diseovezed the causes of diseases, but also the ■lesDs of their prevention. Specific treatmests have been discovered even for diseases of still unknown etiolo^; and hygiene and sanitation in general now oanstUute aa exact science; Of the commen diseases of tlie lYopies, such as leprosy, dysentery, trypano- wmiasisy filaria^s^ anltylostofnlasis, etc., and the most important of all, malaria, the cavse^ mode of transmissienv prevention, and treatment are known. It is a emnmon knowledge that these diseases are prevalent in those ocmntries where hyglenle and sanitary conditions are unfavorable. It is known, too, that disease is an insurmountable barrier to the development of the vast resources 9t tropical America and the progress of the Latln^Ameriean countries. With the Instrumentality of modern hygiene and sanitation at our disposal for the prevention and eradication of these diseases, it is beyond any reasonable understanding why the sanltntiLon of the Tropics has not ree^ved due attention. The Roek^^ler Foundation has done much in that direction, it is true, but nmh more Is need^ namely, the earnest cooperation of the respective govem- laents of those countries. The reason why they have not cooperated is olnious, but is beyond the scope of this article for discussion.' Bie problem of sanitation of tropical America will be aided to a large extent W the fact tlmt the greater part of the inhabitants of those countries, the lifttia-Americans,. represent a race admirably adapted to stand the unfavorable climatic conditions of those regions. The people are very healthy by nature and to a large extent immune or resistant against certain diseases, as may be flhown by the compenents of its evolutional development. The present Inhabitanto of the American continent, it is true, represent almosit all the races ot the world, but roughly, the greater part may be said to consist of the fallowing extractions: 30 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. 1. The Anglo-Saxons, derived chiefly from England, and northern Europe. ?. The Negroes, imported from Africa. 3. The Latins, derived from Spain, France, Portugal, Italy and some other countries of Southern Europe. 4. The Indians, whatever their origin may have been, whether Asiatic or Phoenician, etc., at the- time of the discovery of America, were found to have undergone sufficient evolutional development to constitute a separate and dis- tinct race, erroneously called Indians because of the belief of Ck)lumbus that he had discovered a new route to India and not a new contineit, America. The Indians in an exact sense are Americans in the same sense that the Negroee are Africans, or the Europeans, Caucasians. 5. The La tin- Americans, derived from the intermarriage of the Latins with the native Americans, may properly be regarded as a distinct type and as the youngest of the human races, represented at present perhaps by no less than 100,000,000 people of tropical and subtropical America. To regard the Latin- Americans as Europeans or Latins would be as erroneous as to regard them as Americans or Indians, because they really represent an amalgamation of the Latins and Americans In the same sense as the Anglo-Saxons represent an amalgamation. The anthropological and biological Importance in the evolutional development of the Latin-American race from a medical point of view Is that, by having derived from the Latins more or less resistance or natural Immunity against tuberculosis and other European diseases, and from the native American more or less resistance or natural Immunity against malaria and other tropical dis- eases, the race has inherited the strong characteristics of the two and conse- quently Is better fitted to stand unfavorable climatic and sanitary conditiona Tlie Latin-Americans therefore by nature are more resistant to diseases in general, a fact which undoubtedly will greatly aid in the sanitation of tropical and subtropical America, where the greater part of this population Is found. Proof of this natural resistance is found in the fact that the Latin- Americans have survived and propagated in the Tropics under unfavorable sanitary condi- tions, and are likewise adaptable to the life In the cold and temperate regions. In contrast to this we know how susceptible the native Americans still are to tuberculos's when living in association with Europeans, as are the Europeans to the diseases of the Tropics. But this does not Imply that life for the Inhabitant of northern regions Is an hniwssibllity in the Tropica; not in the least, because this would amount to saying that the Africans can not live in northern climates, which is not the case, as over 10,000,000 of them are in North America alone. The advancement In modern sanitation has rendered the earth safe to live in, whatever region man may choose. What is still lacking Is sufficient sanitation and appropriate training and better knowledge among the laity in general concerning the causes of diseases, their modes of transmission and how to prevent them. It is the neglect of these underlying principles — ignorance, In other words— ^^'hich is responsible for the sad consequences too often seen and which could easily be avoided among the inhabitants of northern regions who carelessly hazard their future in tropical countries. In this connection It is of primary importance that those who desire to settle in tlie Tropics, or undertake some enterprise in those countries, should first receive appropriate instruction in bacteriology, hygiene and sanitation, para- sitology and troi)ical medicine, and also in Spanish or Portuguese. This instruction may be taken in one or two semesters in any of our univer- sities that offer such courses. The courses should consist of didactic lectures ECONOMICS. 31 aod demonstration in the laboratory. The student should become proficient ' io the underlying principles of hygiene and sanitation before receiving a ceiv tificate or diploma, and only then should be regarded as a candidate for a position, of whatever kind it may be, in the Tropics. At the same time the writer believes it is an imperative necessity and of vital importance that the same instruction should be given not only in all unversi- ties and colleges, but also in the schools throughout tropical and subtropical America. The respective governments of these countries should awake to present-day requirements by directing their efforts toward the sanitation of the Tropics. ** Health first,*' and only then can the almost inexhaustible resources of the Tropics be developed, and with it the progress and prosperity of tropical and subtropical America and of the Americans as a whole. BDFEJRBNCBS. Arnold, Ralph. Oil in Mexico. In Proceedings of the second Pan-American Sci'^ntiflc ConereB8, vol. 8. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, Supt. of Docs., 1917. p. 207. Bmmpt, B. Precis de parasitologie. Paris, Masson et cie, 1010. Casteliani, A., and Cholmers, A. J. Manual of tropical medicine. New York. William Wood & Co.. 1913. 1,747 p. Porchat, Reynaldo. Cattle raising and the moat Industry in Southern Brazil. In Pro- eeedlngK of the second Pan-American Scientific Congrose. vol. 8. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, Supt. of Docs., 1917. p. 691. Reld. G. A. The principles of heredity. New York. E. P. Dntton & Co., 1906. Rlvas, D. Human parasitology. Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders Co. (In print.) The parasitic dlseasen in the American tropical countries and tlieir effect upon the progress of civilization among the Latin American people. In Proceedings of the second Pan-American Scientific Congress, vol. 9. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, Supt. of Docs., 1917. p. 96. Roush, G. A. The mineral production of Latin America. In Proceedings of the second Pan-American Scientific Congress, vol. 8. Washlngrton, D. C, Government Printing Office, Supt. of Docs., 1917. p. 191. Zon. Raphael. South American forest resources and their relation to the world's tlmbpr supply. In Proceedings of the second Pan-American Scientific Congress, vol. 8. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, Supt. of Docs., 1017. p. 483. BUSINESS MATHEMATICS. By Charles C. Geo\'e, Asaiatant Professor of Mathematics, Columbia VnivereHy. This statement is to serve the tw'O purposes of assisting colleges to plan an adequate course of instruction In training for foreign trade and the foreign service of the Government and of enabling university men now in the field of business to plan for a systematic reading course relating to business mathe- matics. Although the curriculum of the school of business of Columbia University consists of a two-year .series of courses based on two years of collegiate study in an approved college, this statement relates to a four-year coUcgiatc course In business. It is further especially desired to make perfectly clear that education as dis- tinguished from training Is in mind. Education is the general development of all the potentialities and powers of a man. It leads him to understand the oomparatively few fundamental principles of rerum naturaj of physics, me- chanics, chemistry, economics, etc., and to form fixed habits of clear, inde- pendent thinking and Intelligent action based on those principles as they recur in most of our everyday problems. Education is general ; training is particular. The educational course should put the student in posjaession of the basic princi- ples of the subjects studied — as, for example, of accounting — so that he, in practice, may readily adapt himself to any form to be followed. These thoughts have been allowed to Intrude because of two observations: First There is still too much training not based on a sure foundation of edu- cation. 82 TEAINIKG POR FOBEIGN SERVICE. Second.. Almost all the esqiert arl>ttragiBl8 in foreign exchanee sie of forelgB origin and ti'aining. It is high time that we raise up in thi» and other highly specialized detMurtments a Exoneration of American young men with as good educa- tion and technical training* THS SUB^BCT MATFBB^ For some years the author has been accustomed to speak, loosely and briefly, of Btatio and of kinematic mathematics in order to bring into bold relief two phases of our mathematical considerations or two points of view of tlie quan- tities under consideration. From the first point of view, quantities are at least thought of as of fixed and determined value, with no idea of approximation or variation. From the other viewpoint, quantities are recognized as varying continuously according to a stated law, as In analytic geometry; or variation and approxlmatioD are recognized as the tifle and not the exception in prac- tical life. The endeavor is then to ascertain the true measure of the qtiantltiea or to formulate a law according to which they seem to vary, at least within a limited range. This conception of quantity has led to the introdUGticm of the statistical method into the mathematics of business to a ispidly increasing extent. The topics of the courses are accordingly : I. Static MathematTcs. A, Advanced^ arithmetic, logarithms. 1. Review of methods to develop speed and accuracy in addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, with short cuts that arise fVom an understanding of the nature of the operations and somewhat of the theory of numbers. Arithmetical complement and arithmetical supplement. The object is to bring the student into the atmosphere of number and of numerical relationships, realizing that for the clerical worker such an appre- ciation is of fundamental importance. Read A treatise on computation, by E. M. Langley, New York ; T^ongmans, Grewi & Co., 1895. 2. Fractions and their decimal equivalents — ^terminating, repeating, or cir* culating — noting the distinction between rational and irrational numbers. Per cents of £ s. d.r etc 3. Proportion, ^niple compound, conjoined (in arbitrage), and even alligation, if desired, simply enouph to acquaint the student with it, because of its useful- ness in chemistry In '* balancing equations," because it provides an easy .solu- tion to some problems that would otherwise involve indeterminate equations, and as it completes the systematic development of the subject of proportion. 4. The method of cancellation. 5. The elements of the theory and use oi logarithms. Slide ruleSw The busi- ness man rtiould no longer be afraid of the word logarithm. An extensive treatment, obtainable only in libraries, is in Appendix 12, Ann. Rep., 1896, of U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, under the title " Logarithms, their Nature, Computation, and Uses," by W. W. Duffleld, Superintendent. With it are 10 tables. 6. The use and making of other tables, such as — Interest, simple and compound. Discount, simple and compound. Annuity, amount of, present value, to amortize,* etc. Bond tables,* * This topic is mentlon«»d hore for convenience, but the actual use and making of the tables would occur when each is needed. bco£fom:ig8<^ 3d B, The (UcTBhra of diterete quantUie», "L Batlonai integral ftmctlons. 2. Retetlonships between coefficients and roots. 3. Mnldplleatioii and division with detached coefficients. 4. Binomial coefficients — Pascal's triangle. 5. Permutations and combinations, distributions and derangements. 6. Introduction to probabilities. T. Finite number series* Progressions, arithmetic and geometric. Series whose law may be determined. Introduction to finite differences. Introduction to interpolation, extrapolation, sanunatlon. 8. Undetermined coefflcients, applicaticms. 9. Mathematical induction. 10. Infinite series: Geometric, exponential, logarithmic. Convergence, dlvei^nce, tests. C. Thq 9olution of equations— Of any degree, growing out of a study of the theory of equations. Of quadratic. Remainder theorem, factor theorem. Transformations, algebraic and geometric views of. DescarteS's rule of signs. Rational roots (by synthetic division). Approximation of irrational roots. REFERENCES. BurnBlde,, "W., and Pan ton, A. W. The theory of eqnattonK New York, Longmans, „ Green & Co., 1904. €hrT8tal, Gforee. IVxtbook of algebra. Bdtnbnrii^, A. and C. Black. 188^89. 2 vols. iiall. H. s. ana Knight, S. R. Selected topics from higher algebra. New York, London, Macmlllan Co., 1908. Some roeput booka on the snblect are : . Schlauch, W. S. Commercial algebra. Book 11. Boston, Ginn A Co., 1918. Skinner, E. B. College algebra. New York, Macmillan Co., 1917. Chap, XIV. 263 p. lounj;, 8. W., and Morgan, B\ M. Elementary mathematical analysis. New York, Mac- millan Co., 1917. 548 p. (Chapters VIII and IX.) It ^dll be observed that the subject of permutations and combinations has been introduced early. That is for two reasonft: 1. The subject above all othem enforces, con^^ correct interpretation, con- centration, clear thinking, definite statements: Thia will lead to the formation of the habits of thought which is the most important object of education to (leTelop. 2. The students, for some years to come, will vary consid^ably in the kind of preparation for the work of these collegiate schools of business. Mature, experienced men, for whom in part these schools exist, will be in class with yonng men fresh from the examinations of the College Entrance Board. The "^)ect of peimntations and combinations wUl be new, fresh, interesting to, *nd within the understanding of, all members of the class alike, and will force ttpon the eonscionsnesffi of all the cardinal purpose of the educational course. The examples and exercises throughout shall be from practical business of to-day. It shall be their object to illustrate and illumine the topic under con- sideration and to reveal its applicability where that had not been apparent. '^ tbregoing covers the theoretical preparation for a text like The Mathe- Joatical Theory of Investment, by Prof. B. B. Skinner (Ginn & Co., 1913), which inay be used during the second half of the year. 34 TRAINING FOR FOBEIGN SERVICE. Among the topics considered near the close of the first half year and in pre- paration for which the outside reading may be done is that of foreign exchange and trade acceptances, which will rapidly come into general use in both domestic and foreign trade. The following are books that may be assigned for reading and report : REFEaiENCES. Clare, George. The A^ B, C of foreign exchange. New York, MacmlUan Co.. 1893. Goschen, George J. The theory of foreign exchanges. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons. Margraff. Anthony W. International exchange. New York, Anthony W. Margraff, 1912. 229 p. RchJlr. J. P. Technik des Bankgenchftftes. (Gives the accountancy, too.) Spalding, Wm. F. Foreign exchange and foreign bills. New York, Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons. 1915. 216 p. Swoboda, Otto, and B'urst, Max. Die Arbitrage. Berlin, Ilande und Spener, 1909. Withers, Hartley. International finance. New York, E. P. Dutton & Co., 1916. 183 p. Money changing. New York, E. P. Dutton & Co., 1913. 183 p. Stocks and shares. New York, E. P. Dutton & Co., 1910. 372 p. The business of finance. New York, E. P. Dutton & Co., 1918. 204 p. The meaning of money. New York, E. P. Dutton & Co^ 1916. .307 p. War and Lombard street. New York. E. P. Dutton & Co., 1915. 171 J ft and Palgrave, Sir R. H. The English banking system. Washington, D. C, Supt. of Documents, 1910. The brochures published by many large banking houses as, in New York, by The National City Bank, Guaranty Trust Co., The American Exchange National Bank, and others. II, Kinematic Mathematics. The ideas of function, change, continuity, and continuous change, of variation and approximation. The graph of rational integral functions of common and familiar occurrence, of other functions that arise, as cost, interest, annuity, present value, charts for wages, for exchange and arbitrage. The principles of analytic geometry. The equation of a locus, the locus of an equation, the discussion of an equation. Plotting functions as Sn= -^ 1 o^^ — T — j considering in turn two of the quantities as variable and the others as constant or as a parameter. Developing functions whose graphs shall be of type forms for use later in statistical work. Elements of analytic geometry in three dimensions. SFCOXD YEAR. Elements of the differential and integral calculus. Elements of the calculus of finite differences. The theory of probability. The method of least squares. Fitting simpler curves to data, . Statistical measures. Correlation. THIRD AND POUBTH TBAB. The mathematical theory of statistics. An elective and graduate course — Seminar on Blometrika and present writers. An advanced mathematical theory of interest and life contingencies, A graduate course following the Institute of Actuaries' text book. Parts I and II. REFERENCES. Bartlett. D. P. General principles of the method of least sqaares. Boston, A. I>. Mac- Cachlan, 1915. 142 p. Brunt, David. The combination of observations. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1917. 219 p. Czuber, E. Wahrschcinllchkeitsrechnung, I and II. Leipzig, B. G. Teubner, 1903. ECONOMICS. 35 Bld^rton, W. Frequency carves and correlation. Chicagro, Spectator Co. Fisher, Arne. The mathematical theory of probabilities. New York, MacmiUan Co^ 1915. 171 p. (Reissue, with new chapters, 1922.) Giffin, Sir Robert. Statistics. New York, Macmillan Co., 1913. 485 p. Quetelet, L. A. Letters on the theory of probabilities. London, C. & B. Liayton, 1849. RietK, H. L., Crathome, A. R., -and Rletz, J. C. Mathematics of finance. New York, Holt k Co., 1921. 280 + xlil p. Rugg, H. O. Statistical methods applied to education. Boston, Houghton Mifllin Co., 1917. 410 + xvlii p. Range, C. Graphical methods. New York, Columbia Uniyerslty Press, 1912. Walton, Seymour, Mathematics of accounting and finance. New York, Ronald Press Co., 1921. 274 p. Wrigiit, T. W., and Hayford, J. P. Adjustment of observations. New York, D. Van Nostrand Co., 1906. Yule, G. Udny. An introduction to the theory of statistics. Philadelphia, J. B. Lippin- _ cott Co., 1917. .381 p. (Rev. ed., 1919. 398 p.) Ziiek. Franz, and Persons, W. M. Statistical averages. New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1913. 392 p. BUSINESS PSYCHOLOGY AND ETHICS. By James E. Lough. Professor of Experimental Psychology and Method, School of Pedagogy, New York University, The study of psychology and ethics is rapidly gaining recognition as funda- mental or basic work for everyone who is preparing to enter business as a profession. Psychology is the science of the mind, its attributes, limitations, development, springs of action, and control. The psychology of the business man may be a crude " rule of thumb " psychology, bascni largely upon inac- curate, and frequently prejudiced, observation of a limited group of cases, or derived from popular magazines and Sunday newspapers, or he may possess a knowledge of psychology that has been established upon general laws scien- tifically developed by means of extended study and Investigation. Business psychology comprises a group of psychological problems that can be applied directly or indirectly to business operations. The fundamental principles are in no way different from the principles of general psychology. Illustrative material, however, comes from the domain of business operations, and emphasis Is placed on the somewhat limited group of laws that obviously fall into business operations. In many institutions the course in business psychology is based upon the study of standard or general textbooks of psychol- ogy. In such cases the student will find it necessary to make his own applica- tions. He will also iind it desirable to touch lightly upon, or to omit altogether, 'iiany topics that have a remote bearing on business, as for example, localiza- tion of functions, details of sense organs, and space perception. The introductory course in business psychology should be a general course, that is it should include psychological problems that apply to a wide range of business activities. Following this first course, and based upon it, the student Diay consider special groups of problems, as for example, the psychology of salesmanship, psychology of advertising, mental rating of employees, vocational guidance and placement, and the psychology of factory management. The following topics should be Included In the first or general course In business psychology: I. Self -analysis. — A study of the mental traits generally called for in busi- ness—observation, concentration, memory, imagination, reason, knowledge, ambition, confidence, loyalty, enthusiasm, cheerfulness, reliability, energy, persistence, initiative, self-control. Self -analysis should enable the student to realize which of his traits are strong and dependable and which are weak and undeveloped. He should also be able, as the result of his study, to make a more accurate estimate as to the mental traits of others. IL Mental development. — An analysis of the content and processes Involved in each trait mentioned in I, in order to determine methods of strengthening to TRAINING FOB FOBBIGK SERVICE. traits that sli0W undeirinible weaknesflr. This implies in tb* fiFst place to aelf- derelopment, bnt also carrteer with it the methods to be jDollowed in developing these same traitsf in othem III. The application of the principles of habit formation to traits^ prlaclpaUr to the traits involved in disposition and action, those forming the basfs ot character. IV. Springs of action. — ^The natural (Instinctive) and tl^ acquired linpulses and inhibitions. The origin and devek^pment of the instincts, conscious and unconscious imitation, the influence of health, sex, age, race, and social environ- ment in modifying original springs of action and methods of evalufttlng springs of action, and effect of substitution of motives. V. Types of decision and methods of control. — ^These should be studied in the first place by special reference to one's self and may tben be applied in order to effect decisions in others. In this section should also be included topics on suggestion and obedience. On completing the topics enumerated above the student sliould be ready to take TXQ special problems in the psychology of business : VI. Psvchology of (idvertisina, VII. Psycholoffy of salesmanship, VIII. PsyeJhology of management. IX. Scientific voeaUanal guidance on selection of employees. X. Fatigue and recreation as factors in efficiency. XL Acquisition of skiU. Xn. Working vHth others. — Cooperation, rivalry, helping and hindering, the development of morale; RBFBRBNCBB. Cftneral, Ang^n. J. R* Chaptcr» fros modera psycheloRy. New Torfc, Loasmans, Onm it Co., 1912. 308 p. Calklna, M. W. Introduction to psychology. New York, Macmlllan Co., 1901. Jamnk WUIIam. Psye Inchided In the study oi business ethics are there- fote not ^^iienent in any essential from the topics tneated fn any standard otNose in geaeml ettiica. Htustiative material^ hoive^r, most be drawn from bofiteeta aottvittea mtter thiui from social Ufe; The foUovvlttg toples should be included in the eotocse: Z. Evolution of moral- ity; n. Origin of soeitd morality; ItL The theory of mcffaUty; IV. The mean- iog of doty ; V, The cmsideratkMi of special problems of social and business pnetice — setf-conseloiuness sad altraisra, loyalty, patriotlsai, cooperatfon, in-i dtetrlftl duties^ social and industrial alienation. REFEIIENCES. D«w«j, John, and Tafts, J* H. Ethics. New Y«rk» Henry Holt & Co., 1»08. Drake*, Dnrant. Problems of conduct. BoHton, Houf^hton Mifflin Co., inifl. 425 p. Fiske, John. Through nature to (!od. Bo.ston, Hociffhton Mimin Co., 18i»!). Ilobhouse, L. T. Morals in evolution. New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1915. 64S p. Hyde, W. D. The fiye great phiK>0ophle!i of life. New York, MR^millan Co., 1»11. 296 p. Jftae& WiiUam. Is life worth UvIih?? New York, Lonamana. Green & Co.. 1011. Palmar, J". H. The nature of goodness. Boston, Houghton ififTtln Co., 1903. Bmb, E. a. Sin and society. Bostoa, Hongbtcn Mlfllln Co., 11H>7, 8impflon» K. The capitalization of goodwill. Baltimore, JubuA Hopkins University „ PPWB, 1921. 8peBcer» Hotet. IHita oi etaton. N«w YwK A. L. Burt ft Co. wmeer, W. H. L*^ and buplnesft. Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1921. Battaerlaiid, AlessBder. Orlj^ and gFowtb of tlie moral iastlnetB. New York, Ijong- mans. Green & Co., 1808. wkke, C. S". Broltrtloii of moraHty. I>nidoti, TrWwer & Co., 1878. Wcsterflnrck, fi. A. Orig&B and deyeloikBent of noral ideas. New York, Macmillan. Cow, 1917. 806 i^ THB STU]>T OP BUSINESS ADMINiSTBATION AND ORGANIZA- TION, Ia Prepacatiott €or Fofeign Tzada. By Arthtb B. Swawson, BicanBon Ogilvie Co., CMcago, lit., Thdustrial Engineers, OcotfionaUy the term " business administration '' is used in a broad sense to include all tbe functions of a business. It is tlien virtually synonymous with the term " business/' More frequently, however, it is used to denote the atricUy executive functions in the management of business. In discussing tbe place that a study of administration and organization should occupy in a course of training for foreign trade, the term "business administration*' is lued in this latter sense. Business organization is also used ill a twofold way. People ^eak, for instance, of organizing a company and refer then to the steps that must be taken In order to incorporate. Again they speak of their business as belnj: well organized and refer then to the manner in which tho functions of their busi- M8S are facilitated by the di^oaition of personnel, equipment, and processes. It is in this latter sense that the term " organization " is used here. The study of business administration and CM'ganization in preparation for foreign trade should include a course in the elements of administration and organization with general application to business of any character and a special course In the administration and organization of businesses or depart- ments of such engaged in foreign trade. It is particularly desirable that the student jMrecede his special study of the administration and organization of businesses engaged tn foreign trade by 0 peneral course in business administration and organization, because the ^dent is then made to realize that there is no sharp line of demarcation 38 rRAINING FOR FOBEIGN SERVICE. between foreign and domestic business, but that foreign business differs from domestic mainly In that business is conducted under very different conditions. The general course in the elements of administration or organization should include a treatment of such factors as «the adjustment of the organization and administration to the purposes of the business and the conditions of opera- tion ; the delegation of authority, including such factors as departmentization, centralization, and decentralization; the control of delegated authority by means of reports, conferences, and personal relations ; the relation of authority to responsibility ; functional special ization as it relates to both the delegation of authority and the efficiency of the personnel ; the correlation of departments and processes so that the activity of each person or unit contributes effectivdy to the activity of the whole and so that a balance is maintained ; the standardiza- tion of materials, equipment, and processes ; the utilization and preparation of reports; discipline; employment; training; wage policy, and relation of busi- ness to such external agencies as the National Government and State govern- ments, public opinion, competition, etc. In such a course in the elements of administration and organization the object should be to bring out for the student the significance of these factors in business. It would not be possible, nor would it be desirable, to give him in such a course a detailed knowledge of all these f.ictors. Taking, for Instance, "the utilization and preparation of reports, it would not be the purpose of tlie course to train the student in the preparation of complicated reports for which an accounting training is essential. The purpose would be to show the value of such reports in the management of a business and to show how their prepa- ration is controlled by their utilization for administrative purposes. A considerable amount of illustrative material should be introduced in the course as each factor is taken up for discussion. In part this can be supplied by giving the student detailed descriptions of the organization and the admin- istration of typical businesses. In part it can be accomplished by inspection reports. Neither of these methods is very satisfactory. The laboratory method is the moat effective, but it can be used with difficulty and only In a limited way except for advanced students. The special course in administration and organization as it applies to businesses engaged In foreign trade should comprise a study of the organization and administration of the different business institutions engaged In foreign trade with a view to understanding not only how they are organized and administered but why they must be organized and administered in a special way. It is particularly interesting and instructive to the student to show how the factors discussed In the elements of the business administration and organization are present In foreign as well as domestic business. The business institutions to be studied will Include the export commission house, the export merchant, the export forwarder, the manufacturer's agent, the export departments of businesses selling direct, export branch houses, advertising agencies that place advertising in foreign countries, foreign credit agencies, and trade associations. It is important that the student taking such a course bo acquainted with the marketing, credit and financing fimctlons of an exporting business, because, as previously stated, the organization and administration of a business is in a large measure determined by the functions of a business and the conditions under which it is operated. The course might well he so arranged as to provide for the special treatment of the organization and management of such depart- ments as purchasing, sales, advertising, credits, finance, shipping, Invoicing, and accounting. ECONOMICS. 39 The courses should preferably be semester courses and should be taken as late in the course of training as practicable. REFERENCES. American Academy of Political and Social Science. Personal and employment problems In industrial management. Philadelphia, 1916. 376 p. (Annals, vol. 65.) CheriDgton, I*aul. Advertising as a business force. New \ork, Doubleday, Page & Co., 1913. 569 p. Dewey, MelvlL Office efficiency. New York, Lake Placid Club, 1912. 45 p. FilslDKer, B. B. Exporting to Latin America. New York, D. Apple ton & Co., 1916. 565 p. Ilode, Robert F. Scientific management and labor. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1915. 302 p. Hoagh, B. OIney. Ocean traffic and trade. Chicago, La Salle Extension University, 1914. 432 p. -. Practical exporting. New York, Johnston Export Pub. Co., 1920. 623 p. See Chapters 4, 5, 8, 9. and 10. Industrial fatigue. New York, Russell Snge Foundation, 1917. Johneon. R R., and others. History of domestic and foreign commerce of the United States. Washington, D. C, Carnegie Institution. 1915. Jones, Edward D. The administration of industrial enterprises. New York, Longmans, Green & Co., 1916, 442 p. Kimball. Dexter B. Principles of industrial organization. New York, McGraw Hill Co., 1913. 272 p. Koeppel, C. JB3. Installing efficiency methods. New York, Engineering Magazine, 1915. Irffflngwefr, William H. Scientific office management. Chicago, A. W. Shaw Co., 1917. 235 p. Marshall, L. C. Business Administration. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1922. llTp. Schnlze, John W. The American office. New York, Ronald Press Co., 1914. 418 p. Secrist, Horace. Statistical methods. New York, Macmlllan Co., 1916. Shaw. A. W. An approach to business problems. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1916. 332 p. Snow, C. D. Export trade suggestions. Washington, D. C, Covernment Printing Office, 1916. (U. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- merce. Miscellaneous series no. 35.) German foreign-trade organization. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1916. (U. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Miscellaneous series no. 35.) See Chapters 9 and 10. Taylor, F. W. The principles of .scientific management. New York, Harper & Bros., 1911. Tead, Ordway, and Metcalf, Henry C» Personal administration. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1920. 538 p. Thompson, Clarence B. Scientific management. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1914. 878 p. ACCOUNTING APPLIED TO FOREIGN TRADE. By John Raymond Wildman, Bead Prpfesaor of Accounting, School of Commerce, Accounts, and Finance, New York Vniversiti/. The parties to foreign trade are the importer, the exporter, the transporter, the warehouseman, and the banker. Accounting applied to foreign trade must therefore be considered from the respective points of view of the parties. The accounting relating to the importing and exporting of merchandise does not differ from other accounting except that it emphasizes the expenses inci- dent to cnstomhouse clearance, warehousing, ocean as well as land transporta- tion, and requires a slight knowledge of foreign exchange. The accounting relating to transportation and warehousing as industries roust be differentiated from that which arises out of the relations between these parties and the Imjwrter and exporter, respectively. In no case is the account- ing out of the ordinary except that of the ocean transportation company where the company is required to collect from foreign shippers in foreign currency. The accounting for the banker must take cognizance not only of the usual banking operation but of the somewhat complicated foreign exchange feature. A university course in " Accounting applied to foreign trade " must needs take into consideration the extent to which " background " courses such as the Wstory of commerce, foreign trade and transportation, and theory of foreign exchange, are available and prerequisite. In the ideal curriculum they would be both available and prerequisite, In tbe majority of instances in which the 40 TRAINING FOB FOSBI6N SERVICE. suggestions which fOHow luay be of use, it is probable thafc such courses will be lacking, hence the course In accounting should lay the foundation in history, economics, and finance, and perhaps take on more of a composite nature than would be usual in the ideal curriculum. Ah outlined below, it should be offered two one-boor ptt'iods a week for two semestersL Stripped* of the material other than that which is strictly account- ing, one semester would probably suffice. In either case it should follow thtt course in general accounting. It should be presented as a combined lecture and laboratory course with liberal assignments of coUat^al reading. OUTLINE. Historical background leading up to the status of the United States prior to the World War. EfPpct of the World War on the commercial and financial relations of the United States. The Federal Reserve Act as a factor In develof^ ing the foreign trade of the United States. Outlook for the fntuce of the foz^ eign trade of the United States. The Webb Act The materials of foreign trade. The commodity needs of the United States. Imports for past five years. Foreign markets and opportunities. Exports for past five years. General and special characteristics of export commodities. The question of packing. Warehouse, port, and shipping fSacilities. The agencies for the conduct of foreign trade. The exporter, as principal, as agent, the forwarder. The functions, relations, and charges of-r-the dray- man; the warehouseman; the Government in the exercise of supervision and restrictions; the insurer; tlie ocean transportation company. The documents and shipping papers; bills of lading; consular invoices; shipper's export declaration; invoices of the drayman and the insurance company. The importer and his relation to the ocean transportation company; to the customs department of the Government ; to the customhouse broker ; the warehouseman ; the local transportation company. The documents for imports ; incoming bills, of lading ; customhouse entry blank ; declaration ; duty depoi^it ; appraiser's re- port; release; duty adjustment; marine insurance; inward freight; and cartape. Expenses characteristic of the exporter: Outward cartage (depository to the steamship pier); consular invoices; ocean freight; marine insurance; ware- house charges; forwarder's commission. Characteristic expenses of the im- porter: Ocean freight and marine insurance (usually included hi purchase invoice) ; customhouse broker ; duty ; Inward cartage. Principle of the draft Two-party drafts. Three-party drafts. Bookkeeping for drafts. The trade acceptanca Specimen transactions illustrating purchases and sales of merchandise with Importing and exporting expenses ; drawbacks ; packing costs and their relation to claims for goods damaged in transit; owned goods and consigned goods; goods sold on open account; draft; trade acceptance; conversion of invoices from English, French, German, Dutch, and South American currencies to United States currency. Statements of facts and problems correlating the above and introducing statements requiring conversion to and from branch offices and foreign agencies. Standard rates for conversion of accounts current Inci- dental profit on exchange. Theory of foreign exchange. Fimction of the foreign-exchange banker; er- ciiange parities: conversions. International banldng. Sources of exchange. Demands for exchange. The gold points. Expenses incident to the shipment of gold. The various kinds of exchange; bankers* long bills, short bills, cable transfers, commercial clean long, clean short, documentary long, documentary short, doeum^its on acceptance, decum^ats on payment £C02irOAC]£;&. 41 Thft foreign-exdianga department; organization*, function, reeocds, relation to general organizatbon of the bank. The foreign -exchange eontrolling account io t&e general books. Operation of the books of the foreigurexclumge department Tlie foreign- exchange ledger, with supporting books. Long and short bills purchased. Long and short bills sold. Bank acceptances. Trade acceptances. Letters of credit Travelers* checks. Foreign money bought and sold» Arbitrage transactions. Beeoneiliation of foreign bank accounts, showing profit in each account. State- ment of profit and loss for foreign-exchange department. BBFBRBIfCES; Clftpn, B. J. Economic aspectii ofi tlie war. New BAvjsn, Conn., Yale University Press, 1915. 340 p. tiee Chapters 11, 12, 13, and 15. Clare, Geor^. The A B C of foreign exchanga New York, Macmillan Co., 1S9.3. Clausen, Jobn. The development of our foreign trade under the Federal Reserve Act. In Annals of the Asneriettn Asademj of Political and Boclal Science. 1916. p. 182-41. This nuratter- of the AanaiH \B devotied' to Naflonai !iidu9tries and the Federal Qovermnent. Day, CHve. History of commerce. New York, Longmans, Green & Co., Wl^. 640 p. Bee €hai»tsrs. 46-54,. incluaiva Deutsch, Henry. Arbitrage London, B. Wilson, 1910. DicitBee, L. R^ Anditinffi New Yorb« RtmaJd FreB» Co., 1909. p. 227. fijfirup. Foreign exchange. In £kicydLopedia Britannica (11th ed.), vol. 10, p. SO; Journal of Accountancy, Jau.-June, 1*918. BRher;. F. Foreign excfaanDe explained. New York. Macmillan COi, 1917. 219 p. Goshen, G. J. Foreign exchange. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons. Gaarantv Tmst Co. of New York. Americav foreign trade, December 1017. Taking- stock of the future, March li)lj8. Looking forward ; problems and opportunities after tBe war, April 19T8. Banking sen'ice for foreign trade. Banking Institutions tv flnance our future aiH»Bd; ldl6« Hanpt. Attomar. Arbitrages et parltes. Paris, C. l>roy, 1887. Hlner and Whrelli Principles of bookkeeping* Boston, Ginn A Co., 1918. p. 195, 163l 394. llitlomd Bonk of Gommerce in New York. Shrport trade associations, etc. Aih41, 1918. 0*ReiT1y. G. A. The influence of the war on trade, domestic and foreign. New York. firraig' National Bank. XJaited States. Congress. House of Representatives. The Federal Reserve Act. House bill no. 7887; Approved December 23, 1913. The Webb Act. House isesolution no. 2316. Approved April 11, 1918. Smate. B&markB of Senator Robert L. Owen on Senate Bill No. 3928 to establish the Federal Reserve Foreign Bank, Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1918. — Department of Commerce. Exports of domestic merchandiBe from the United Statos, by articles and countries (flve-year tables). Table 5 from Foreign commerce and navigation of the United States. (Annual.) Imports of merchandise into the United States,, by articles and countries (flve-year tablos). Table 3> from Foreign commerce and navigation in the United States. (Annual.) • Packing for export. SnKgestions for preparation of American merchan- dise fbr shipment in- foreign countries. 170 pi Position of the Unit(»d States in world trade. Reprint from an annual report of Bureau of l^dreitrn and Domestic Commerce, 191«. 14 p. t^nlted States. Federal Reserve Board. Foreign exchange and other related trans* actions: executive order of the Prosident dated January 26. 1918; Issued under authoritv of Title 7 of the act of .Tune 15, 11)17, known as tJie espionage act, and section 6 of the act of October 6, 1917, known as the trading-with-the-enomy act; with certain forms approved by the Federal Board as required under the order. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1&18. 16 pi — Instructions to dealers as defined under executive order of the President of the United States; dbted January 26, 1918. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1918. 20 p. Instructions to dealers hi foreign exchange. In C. & F. Chron., February 16, 1918. p. 658. Text of executive order regulating foreign exchange by Federal Reserve Board. /» Bankers* Home Wagnzlne, February. 1918. p. 41—49. Van Tnyl, George H. Complete business arithmetic. New York, American Book Co., 1911. 415 p. Zfanmer, George*. Foreign exchange during the war. Amerloa's changing investment market. In American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1916. p. 151-160. BTilTISTICS AS APPLIED TO BUSINESS^. By Horace Sibcrtbt, Professor of Beonomioe and Statistics, Northwestern Vniversify. WhatevefT mottvefl may prompt one to enter buglness, taie pecuniary one Is undoubtedly pot^t. BnMness saccess is measnred in terms of realized profits; 42 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. and to determine these accurate accounting is necessary. Accounting and sta- tistics may be said to be the universal languages of business. Accounting, as a business tool, has been developed during the last dozen years and is now being used to determine costs in all their different phases. Statistics, as a method in business and as a companion to accounting, has had even a more recent but no less important development. Both have grown in spite of business distrusts and lethargy. The prejudice against statistics is to be sought more in their abuse than in their use, and this fact the business man is coming to see. No longer can business be conducted successfully by a rule-of-thumb method nor accounts and statistics be ignored. Markets must be analyzed and production costs scrutinized. The facts of industry must be used as a basis for the determi- nation of business policy. Statistics in business may be used in the solution of two types of problems — first, those associated with internal, and, second, those associated with external conditions. Internal problems of production, of the supply and control of labor, of organization, etc., lend themselves to statistical treatment. In the same way problems beyond the sphere of individual businesses due to competi- tion, relationship with the State, may also be studied and measured statisti- cally. It is probably this latter side of business to which may be traced the increased use of statistics as a means of forestalling the consequences of keen competition and of measuring the results of State activity upon business. What are statistics? Statistics may be defined, briefly, as numerical aggre- gates, enumerated or estimated according to reasonable standards of accuracy, collected in a systematic manner for a predetermined purpose, and placed in relationship to each other. Statistical methods may be defined so as to include all methods of analysis and synthesis by means of which statistics may be collected and used to describe or explain phenomena in their individual or related capacities. The goal of statistical studies is comparison, and this may relate to time, to place, and to condition. The business man desires to compare his business with that of his competitor ; to compare this year's oi>eration with last year's; to compare one department with another, etc. To do so by means of statistics necessitates the use of aggregates or numerical facts in terms of standardized units of measurement Imperfect measurements and crude units will not suffice. The unit of measure- ment in business, as in all science, is fundamental. In the physical sciences it is definite and standardized. In the business world, however, units are far less definite and their meaning dependent upon the purpose for which they are used. Comparisons are valid or invalid largely in proportion to the degree of accuracy and homogeneity which characterizes the units employed. The statistical methods most commonly used by business men are tabulation and graphics. Tabulation serves the purpose of putting in lines and columns, under stub and caption headings, data classified according to relationships which are significant for the purpose in mind. Tabulation grows out of analysis and registers the relations between facts which are thought to be significant Tables may be simple or complex, depending upon the amount of data which they contain and the complexity of the relations which they register. As a statistical device for classifying business facts, they are fundamental, but their appearance and complexity are oftentimes forbidding. Grai)hlcs, on the other hand, at once arrest attention. They may be divided into two main groups — diagrams, in which lines, surfaces, and volumes are employed ; and gi'aphics proper, which consLst of graphs and curves. Graphic devices are valuable because of their appeal to the eye. It is their power of suggestion which is important and, at the same time, dangerous. A diagranv ECONOMICS. 43 drawn out of scale, or a grapli dissociated from the concrete data which It depicts, may be highly deceptive. Both may illustrate faulty data and in themselves never reveal the fact. Graphics rarely add new meaning to sta- tistical facts. What they do is to throw into bold outline relationships which niay lie concealed in tables. Their appeal is to the eye and not necessarily to the intellect, and they should be used with caution and circumspection. la business, where data are accurate and the desire to deceive laclcing, graphic devices may be successfully employed, not only to give to executives and others vivid Impressions of operating efficiency in the past but likewise to suggest or to forecast the future. Graphic devices are almost of infinite variety imd may be used In almost all of the different phases of business activity. It is to be remembered, however, that they are secondary to the analysis which is required for the preparation of the material which is to be illustrated. An example of the use to which statistical methods in business are put may be helpful. The business man is constantly in need of a barometer and fore- caster of trade conditions. If he can know what the future will bring, if he can gauge> his productive activity in line with industrial and financial con- ditions, his business will be stabilized and his methods made more profitable. He is therefore seeking to interpret the meaning of statistical facts growing out of trade relations, banking and finance, manufacturing conditions, stock and bond transactions, etc. In response to his needs, certain organizations have prepared and are marketing so-called " statistical services/' the aim of which is to interpret fundamental business and industrial statistics. Until recently, little If any science has characterized such services. Within the last two years, however, both a business barometer and a busi« ness forecaster have befen worked out on scientific principles. The method of correlation, developed by Sir Francis Galton and perfected by Karl Pearson, has definitely been adapted to business data. To-day, not only is this method used by statisticians in the interpretation of business facts but also by psychol- ogists in choosing and grading men, by agriculturalists in selecting farm prod- ucts and farm animals, by breeders and others in Improving animal stock in this and other countries. Probably no more promising field of statistical in- quiry, so far as the interests of the business man are concerned, has beea developed in the last decade than the application of the method of correlation to the development of business barometers. Business, to be successful, must be scientific. Business men are conhng keenly to realize this fact. A scientific tool which is available and may be of inestimable service toward the development of business, as a science, is the method of statistics.' Statistical studies should come relatively late in the student's work, since they are technical, presuppose a knowledge of business conditions, and for their successful perusal, require a certain degree of intellectual maturity. At least one-half year of four to five hours a week is necessary for an introductory course. A large portion of this time should be devoted to laboratory problems Illustrative of the principles discussed in the text. It is well to duplicate in this part of the course, so far as can be done, actual statistical work. REFERENCES. The following is a selected biblloi?rnphy of books covering an introdnction to the sub- ject. The starred (•) references are designed as textbooks. BabsoD, Roger. Business barometers. 10th ed. Wellesley Hills, Mass., Babson's Sta- tistical Organization. 1017. 425 p. Bailey, W. B., and Cummlngs, John. Statistics. Chicago, A. C. McClnrg & Cu., 1917- ^ 188 p. Bowler, A« L. Elementary manual of statistics. New Tork, Charles Scribner's Son% 19i4. 215 p. Elements of Btatistics. New York. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1901. 82186*— 22 i 44 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. BrintoB, Wlllard C. Graphic methods for pres^enting facts. New York, Engineering Magaiine, 1914. 871 p. Copeland, Melvin T., ed. Bualnees statistics. Cambridge, Mass., IlarTard University Press, 1917. 690 p. Bldertou, W., e combined, in the third or fiourth year of the college course, with some of the preceding subjects. Beciprocity treaties and international commercial relations may be nndertaken in connection wtth tariff history. International trade, and tariff history and experience, may be combined in one course; or international trade and foreign exchange may be combined in one course. The combination and interrelation of the subjects must depend upon the facilities at the disposal of iDstmetors and students. In the latter part of the course, at the mme time with these economic subjects, it is desirable to undertake also a study of inter- national law and international treaties, with si>eclal reference to commercial treaties. A bibliography indicating serviceable books follows. The books first men- tioned under each head are those most likely to prove useful to those who are unable to undertake a college course and may wiab to pr«f>are themselves by independent reading and study. REFERENCES. Economic, Bsllock, C. J. Blements of ecooondcs. 2d ed. Nefw Tork, Silver, Burd^tt A Co., 1918. 378 p. £)r. B. T. Ontilncs of economics. 3d rev. ed. New York, UacmlUan Co., 1916. Fiiher. IrTlnir. ElemeDtary principles of economlca 8d ed. New York, Mncmillan Co.. 1912. 531 p. Seager, H. R. Principles of economics. 2d ed. New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1917. 662 p. Taussig. F. W. Principles of economics. New York, Macmillan Co., 1915. 678 p. Government. Bryce, James. American Commonwealth. New York, Macmillan Co., 1910. 2 vols. Lowell, A. L. Greater Ehiropean xoTemments. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Prcfis 191S Monro, 'w. B. Government of the Hnited States. New York, Macmillan Co.. 1918. ^* F. A. Govemmentfl of Europe. New York, Macmillan Co., 1913. 668 p. Wilson, Woodrow. Constitutional government. Now York, L#<»mcke & Bnecbner, 1908. Oommcroial Qeoifraphy^ Chisholm, G. C. Handbook of commercial gtograpby. 8th ed. New York, Longmans, Green & Co., 1911. 666 p. Hmitk, J. B. Indnatrlal and «ommercial geography. New York, Henry Holt ft Co., 1913. 914 p. Commercial Arttlwictic. wn. J. C. 1916. 488 p. Flnner, H. A., and Brown, J. C. Modern business arithmetic. New York, Henry Holt ft C?o.. Lyons, J. A. New business arithmetic. Chicago, J. A. Lyons, 1912. 374 p. Moore, John Henry, and Miner, Qeorge W. Concise business arithmetic. Boston, Ginn ft Co., 1915. 283 p. Chemical TeohnolOffU. Benson, H. K. Industrial chemistry for engineering students. New York, Macmillan Co., 19!18. 431 p. Thorp, F. H. Outlines of industrial chemistry. 8d rev. ed. Macmillan Co., 1916. ees f. International Law. Hall, W. E. Treaties on international law. 7th ed. New York, Oxford University _ Pr«w (Amer. Bcanch), 1917. Oppenheim, J. F. "L. International law. 2d ed. New York, I^ngmans, Green ft Co., 1912. 2 YOlB. 46 TRAINING FOR PGQtEIGN SEEVICB. Scott. J. B, Cases on international law. St. Paul, Minn.. West Pab. Co., 1906. Westlako, John. Intcniiitional law. Part 1, 1915 ; part 2, 1914. New York, G. P. Put- nam's Souk. Wilson, G. G., and Tucker, G. F. International law. 7th ed. New York, Silver Burdett & Co., 1917. 505 p. Woolsey, T. D. Introduction to the study of international law. 7tli ed. New York, Charles Scrlbner's Sons, 1901. History of Commerce and Industry. Bogart, E. L. Economic history of the United States. 2d ed. New York, Longmans, Green & Co., 1912. 597 p. Callender, G. S. Solectioiis from the economic history of the United States, 1765-18G0. Boston, Glnn & Co., 1909. Cheyney, E. P. Industrial and social history of England. Rev. ed. New York, Mac- millan Co^^ 1920. Cunningham, William. (>rowtb of English industry and commerce in modern times. 4th ed. New York. G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1904. 2 parts. Day. Cllve. Ilistoiy of commerce. New York, Longmans. Green & Co., 1914. 040 p. GIbbins, H. de B. Industry In England. 3d ed. New York, Charles Scrlbner'n Sons, ilobson, J. A. Evolution of modern capitalism : study of machine production. New York, Charb's ScrIbner»H Sons, 1917. 488 p. Noyes, A. D. Forty years of American finance. 2d ed. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1909. Price, L. li. F. R. Short history of English commerce and industry. New York, Long- mans, Green & Co. Transportation and tihipping. Brown, II. G. Transportation rates and their regulation. New York, Macmillan Co., 1916. 374_p. Colson, L. C. Railway rates and traffic. Tr. from the 8d French ed. New York, Mac- millan Co., 1914. 195 p. Johnson, E. R.. and Van Metre, T. W. Principles of railroad transportation. New York, D. Apploton & Co., 1916. 619 p. Ripb'y, W. Z. Railroads ; finance and organization. New York, Longman.<3, Green & Co., 1915. 638 p. Railroads, rates and regulations. New York, Longmans, Green & Co., 1912. 659 p. Foreign Trade PoUcy, Ashley. P. W. L. Modern tariff hi.story. Rev. ed. New York, B. P. Button & Co., 1912. 448 p. Fisk, G. M. International commercial policlea with special reference to the United States. New York, Macmillan Co., 1907. Grunzel, J. Economic protectionism. New York, Oxford University Press (Amer, Branch), 1916. 357 p. Hornbeck, S. K. Favored nation clause and commercial treatl<*8. Madison, Wis., University of Wisconsin, 1910. Laughlin, J. L., and Willis, H. P. Reciprocity. New York, Baker & Taylor Co.. 1903. United States Tariff Commission. Reciprocity and commercial treaties. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1918. Foreign Exchange, Clare,. George. A B C of foreign exchange. New York, Macmillan Co., 1893. Escher, Franklin. Elements of foreign exchange, 7th ed. New York, Banker's Pub. Co., 1917. 160 p. . Foreign exchange explained. New York. Macmillan Co.. 1917. 219 p. Jefferson, H. M. Banking practice and foreign exchange. New York, Alex. Ilamlltoii Inst., 1913. , _ ^,^ Banking and Currency, Prices, Credits. Du-nbar. C. F. Theory and history of banking. 8d ed. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1917. 297 p. - ^ .^.., ,.^^ Holdsworth, J. T. Money and banking. New York, I>. Appleton & Co., 1917. 611 p. Kinley, David. Money. New York. Macmillan Co., 1904. Scott. W. A. Money and banking. 5th ed. New York, Henry Holt & Co.. 1916. 406 p. White, Horace. Monev and banking illustrated by American history. 5th ed. Boston, Ginn & Co., 1914*. 541 p. Tariffs and Tariff History of the United States. Stanwood. Edward. American tariff controversies in the nineteenth century. 2 vols, Moston, Houghton Mifflin & Co., 1908. Taussig, F. W. Some aspects of the tariff question. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press. 1915. 374 p. . „ Tariff history of the United States. 6th ed. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1914. 465 p. ed States Ta (cotton). Washington, D. C.', Government Printing Office, 1911 Theory and Practice of Statistics. United States Tariff Board._ Report on schedule K (wool). Report on schedule I Bowlev. A. L. Elementary manual of statistics. New York, Charles Scrlbner's Son% lftl4. 215 p. . „ ^^^^ Elements of statistics. New York, Charles Scrlbner's Sons, 1901. Copeland, M. T., ed. Business statistics. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1917. 696 p. EooaffOMics. 47 King. W. I. ElemeDtfl of statistical methods. New Tork, MacmlUan Co., 1912. 250 p. 8ecrist, H. An Introduction to statistical methods. A textbook for colle^ students, a manual for statisticians and buslnesg executives. New York, MacmlUan Co., 1917. 482 p. Cartels and Trusts. Carter, O. E. Tendency toward Industrial combination. London, Constable & Co., 1918. Liefmann. R. Kartolle und trusts. Stuttgart, 1910. Macrosty, H. W. Trust movement in British Industry ; a study in business organization. New York, Longmans. Green & Co., 1907. Ripley, W. Z. Trusts, pools and corporations. Boston, Glnn & Co., 1916. 872 p. TRANSPORTATION AND SHIPPING IN THEIR RELATION TO FOREIGN TRADE. By Grover G. Huebner, Professor of Transportation and Commerce, Universitu of Pennsylvania. The first year of a four-year college course designed for students seeking preparation for the foreign trade need not contain any course dealing directly with transportation and shipping. To obtain the basis for specialized study later in his course, the first-year student can be profitably occupied with courses on the following subjects': Elementary economics, commercial geog- raphy, business law, government, accounting, and English. In his second year the student can advantageously take the course in railroad transportation as many ocean cargoes need to be handled between ports and interior points by rail or rail-water routes. A course given two hours per week throughout the college year or three hours for one term may include the following topics: Origin and growth of the American railway system ; the mechanism of a railroad ; railroad capital ; earnings and expenses ; the freight service; the passenger, express, and mail services; the organization of the service ; railroad statistics ; interrailway relations ; theory and practice of railway cliarges ; and regulation in leading foreign countries. Definite results may be obtained by adopting a good textbook and supple- menting it with additional reading assignments and with lectures and class dlscnsslons. If his roster permits, the second-year student may also be given his course in ocean transportation and shippinff. It is desirable, however, that he be given instruction in the following subjects during the second year : Money and credit, manufacturing industries, advertising, marketing methods In the leading agricultural and manufacturing trades, additional English, and a foreign language. During the third year the foreign trade student will, unless he has done so during the second year, take a course in ocean transportation and shipping, A two-hour per week course extending throughout the college year or a three- hour course for one term makes it possible to include a study of the following topics: Development and classification of sailing vessels, steamers, motor ves- sels, and unrigged craft ; ocean routes ; the Suez, Panama, and other maritime canals; the measurement of vessels and traflSc; the business organization of steamship lines; ocean ports and terminals; the ocean freight service; pas- senger, mail, and international express services; marine insurance; relations between ocean carriers; relations between ocean and rail carriers; principles and practice of ocean freight rate making; aid by the Federal Government; navigation laws ; Federal regulation of charges and services ; aid and regulation by States and municipalities; freight and terminal charges; condition of the American shipbuilding industry and of the American marine; Government aid in foreign countries ; and the merchant marine policy of the United States. 48 TRAINING FOB FOB^GN SERVICE. As in the ease of rullpnad transportation, a textbook is adviga&le as a beslB for study. In addition there may be special reading assignments, lectures, and class discussions; and copies of the various ocean shipping forms should be provided so that tlin student may becoxue famUiar with them. Eitlior in the third or fourth year the student may profitably take a two- hour per wcelc cour.so in railroad traffic and rates so tliat he may obtain more detailed knowledge of freight rates and other charges; methods of rate WMkkag; rtite structure's; tariffs; classilications ; routing; railway fihipplng regcilatiODS and freight services; and public regulation of railroads. It does not seem necessary tliat the student of foreign trade xxeed take aoore tlian the three transiiortatiou courues mentioned. His study of transportation and shipping In the third and fourth years correlates well with his courses in foreign trade methods; history of foreign 'Commerce; industrial management; banking; corporation linance; aaleamau^ip; intMBatiRRel8 for the Panama Canal. "Wasiilngton, D. C, Govwnmoat Printing Office, 19ia. 596 p. Tannma Canal traffic and tolls. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1918. 95 p. The Panama Canal and commerce. Now York, D. Appleton & Co., 1916. 295 p. • . and Huphner, G. G. Principles of ocean transportation. New York, T). Apple- ton 4b Co., 1918. J«nes, G. M. Aid to merchant shipping. WnfihlnirtOD. D. C, Government Printing Office, W16. (T7. S. DepfiTtmcnt of rommerce. Bureau of Foreign and DomeMrlc Commerce.) — — Navigation laws. Comparative study. Washington, D. C. Gove'roroent PrintlBg Office, 1916. (IT. S. Dopartracnt of Commerce. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce.) Ports of ttie rnH*»d States. Washington, D. C. l!rOMICB. 49 CleveJaoU. F. A., end Powell, F. W. Railroad promotion, and capitaliEation In the United States. Arinng<»d esppciaUy for use In typewriting and correspondence ti.i8««»». New Vork, LoDgmaxiii, Gr^^au Ic Co., 1909. 868 p. Daggett.^ S. Kailroad reorganization. Cambridge, Mass., UarvanJ University Press, Dimn. S. O. Governiaent ownership of railway's. Kew York, I>. Appleton & Co., 19X3. 400 p. Uadlf^y. A. T. Kaiiroad transportatico. Its history and its laws. New York, G. P. Putnam's Son.s, 1885. Hooper. W. B. Railroad acconntlag. New York, D. Appleton & Co.. 1915. 461 p. Hungerford, K. Tbe modern railroad. Chicago. A. C. McClnrg & Co.. lOH. 476 p. Tfee railroad problem. Chicago, A. C. McClnrg & Co., 1917. 265 p. 'JobQBoD, K- li., itnd Van Metre. T. W. Filncii)le« 'of niilroad transportation. New •York, D. ,M>pleton & Co.. 1921. 617 p. Marrla. Ray. Eaiii-oad administratloe. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1020. 309 p. Pe&Dody, James. Railroad organiaatioA aQ4 managoflaent. Chicago, La ^alle Exteusion University, 1916. BipIiMT. W. Z. Railroads, Finaiice and organfzatioo. New York. I^oogoiaas. Green & Co», 1915. 638 p. Roper. C. L. Railway transpoi-tatlon. Pblladelphla, 1912. Sakolski A. M. American railroad ecojaoiales. New York. Mecmillau Co., 1913.- 295 p. (See also references listed undrr Railroad Traffic and Rates.) Railroad Traffic and Rates. ikjonerlcan Comiaerce Aasociatloa. The trafftc library. 25 vols. ChioagQ, 1915. Brown. 11. G. Transportation rates and their regulations. New York, Macmillan Co., iwa. »47 p. Clapp, E. J. Railway traffic. New York« Alexander Hamilton lut^tltiue, 1910. Deaoeld, G. A. A national treatise on traffic nanagement. Portland, Oreg., 1921. 867 p* Uuebner, G. Q. Traffic lessons. Fifty-lwo Isssoos published la the Traffic World through- out 1917 and 1918. * Johnson, E. R.. a»d Huebaer, G. G. Railroad traflic and rates. New York, D. Appleton «b Co., 1911. 524 p. La Balle Extonslon University. Books comprising material for ( orreHpondonce course in *• Interstate Coasmerce and Railway Traffic." Chicago. McPherRon, L. G. Railroad freight rates. New York, Henry Holt & Co.. 1909. *Rlpl^. W. ZL Railroads^. Rates and r^ulatlon. Nc«w York,. Ixmgmans, Green & Co.. 1912. 659 La pr Railroad moblems. Boston, Glnn & Co., 1918. 880 p. fiharfman, J* JU Rattwajr rsfulAtton. Chicago. La Salle mtenslon UniversUj, 1915. 280 p. PORT AND TERMINAL FACILITIES. By Bar S. MacBlwks. An understanding of the essentials of transportation, wbich U a large item 111 the cost of production, is even more necessary in foreign trade than in domestic trade. The question of transportation costs involves botli operation and routing. In domestic commerce routing is primarily a matter of railroad rates. Every large concern should have its trained traffic manager to take care of tbis important item of costs. Tlie need is more urgent in foreign trade as the costs are larger, the time element In deliveries of greater variation, and the quality ,of service to the foreign customer may fluctuate between greater extremes tiian in domestic business. Routing calls tor a minute knowledge of the highroads of the world's commerce, as distance Is a matter of transportation facilities and not of mlle.s. There are three links in transportation overseas: (1) Railway inland navi- gation and other land carriers at home and abroad, (2) ships on the seven seas, and rS) the link between land and water carriers, which is the port. The first two have been taught thoroughly and well as part of the higher education fbr business, but the port and terminal problem, which is at present the most tirgent, the most neglected and the least understood of the trilogy, has received only casual consideration. The study of ports and terminals Diust be par infer parem with land and water transportation in any well-ordered curriculum. The course in ports and terminal facilities was first given in an American university at the school of busliMSS of Colunolita Univeiraity, winter semester of 1W7-18. As tfce eourse developed It beeame Increasingly an analysis of efficiency methods in port design and operation, with examples drawn from the leading 50 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. ports of the world as illustrations of the principles involvetl. These illustrations required a wide survey of tlie world's ports, which sliould give the future export merchant direct information. In particular the study in the course shows the merchant what is essential and how to go about further Independent study. Many institutions are now (1922) giving entire or part-semester courses in the subject, notably Georgetown University School of Foreign Service registers 100 students in the courses upon ports and ocean transportation, and presents a 10 semester one full-year curt'iculum for training for the steamship business. The course also sought to show engineers the business requirements and economic baclsground of a port. The trouble in the past too often has been that able engineers have constructed wonderful harbor works which have not been an effective tool of commerce, not because of any lack of engineering efficiency but because of some subtle and elusive economic force. It was evident that the time was not sufficient to cover the ground and a large amount of important material was not touched. However, it would seem more advisable to condense the material rather than to extend the course over two semesters. Also that the two courses on ports and shipping should each be of one semester given early in the curriculum for upper classmen, with a subsequent seminar of more serious study and investigation for graduate stu- dents. There Is an almost untouched field for investigation and research affording suitable material In abundance for masters' and doctors' dissertations. But more important, from the larger standpoint, much serious work must be done within the next few years as our country needs just this kind of exact scientific knowledge to help solve the foreign trade and shipping problems which are so vital to its future welfare. A transportation seminar may well be under the joint supervision and leadership of two or three teachers. This would not exclude intensive special work by small groups with each teacher. The question of textbooks is a difficult one. In the field of water transpor- tation there are several excellent works. In particular, Principles of Ocean Transportation, by Johnson and Huebner, has recently appeared from Appleton & Co., New York. In the case of ports there are, however, some very good monographs for collateral reading. The most Important are Prof. Edwin J. Clapp's " The Port of Boston," " The Port of Hamburg," and " The Navigable Rhine." All are published by the Yale University Press. There are several good works of the monograph type in German and French. Much more serious works on ports have been written abroad than with us, except for Prof. Clapp. The great mass of material on the subject is buried in reports and isolated arti- cles. All these publications, with the exception of " The Port of Boston," have very little to do with the philosophy of ports in general, being more an inter- rogation of facts as regards some particular port. :Mr. W. J. Barney, C. E., secretary of the American Association of Port Authorities, 110 West Fortieth Street, New York City, has recently compiled a bibliography of pamphlets and articles which Is quite thorough, so far as works in the English language are concerned.* The bibliography Is well ordered and grouped and should be a good guide for further study by serious students. Miss Hasse, of the economics room. New York Public Library, is collecting a reference library on ports. The publication of the Columbia lectures, mentioned above, affords a text for future study, but at best it can be only a fingerboard pointing the way to greater con- centration on the subject by many inquiring minds." » Selected bibliography on ports and harbors and their administration, laws, flnancefl, equipment, and engineering. New Yorlc, W. J. Barney. 1916. 'Ports and terminal facilities, with bibliography. By Roy S. MacSSlwee. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1918. ECONOMICS. 61 COURSBS IN COLUMBIA UNIVHSRSITT. The threefold treatment suggested in the preceding paper on Ports and terminal facilities is described in detail In the three following courses/ namely, " Ports and terminal facilities," "Theory and practice of ocean transportation," and " Rail- way traffic and rates," offered in the extension division of Columbia University. PORTS AND TERMINAL rACTLITIES. The object of the course is to lay down firmly the principles underlying the work which a port must i)erform as a coordinated and assembled piece of ma- chinery to further our gi'owing foreign trade. A general -introduction will show^ the types of seaports as to location and layout, with some historical reasons for the same and the dependence of a port upon its hinterland. Miscellaneous package freight. The wharf, transit sheds, and movement by rail to the interior. Freight differentials in connection with port development Marginal railroads, classification yards, handling c. I. and 1. c. 1. lots. Pack- ages for local consumption. Trucking. The warehouse construction and physi- cal connection. Cold storage and terminal markets for perishable food products. Inner harbor movement by lisrhter. Manufacturing plants, the industrial har- bor, and the question of upland v. waterfront property. Movement Into the interior by water. Barge terminals, mooring dolphins " in midstream." The river port and the river-port industrial harbor. Handling of specialized and bulk freight from ocean to river vessel or railroad. Four classes of passengers with their luggage. A waterfront may also be a place jof beauty. Port admin- istration and jurisdiction with particular reference to several successful port authorities. Fiscal aspects, fees, and dues. The free port as an institution. A brief review cf American and foreign ports with their commercial bearing in the routing of exports. THEORY AND PRACTICE OF OCEAN TRANSPORTATION. I. Initial problem, — ^An exporter has various lots of merchandise which he wants to ship; 12 cases of gas*)line . engines for Liverpool, 1 case of parts for London, 10,000 barrels of petroleum for Bordeaux, an ambulance for Havre, a large consignment of rails, cars, and locomotives for Vladivostok. How will he po about it? He may do it himself, or turn it over to a forwarder. There are liners, tramps, private carriers, special service steamers ; shipping papers and routine ; shipping terminology ; how ocean freight rates are made ; ship brokers and agents ; British coal exports and freight rates ; ocean highways and rout- ing; marine insurance and bottomry. IT. Second problem. — The export house decides to enter the shipping business ••ind (1) to build and (2) operate its own ships. 1. Correlation of size, speed, economy of operation, and required service; tJTies of special duty ships; shipbuilding and costs of construction; elementary principles of shipbuilding; standardized ships and ships built in series; growth of shipbuilding and present problems reviewed to forecast the future; oil age. 2. Operating problems and costs under American and foreign registry ; his- tory of American marine legislation ; Government aids to shipping : Subsidies, mail payments, preferential duties, freight rebates. HI. The Liner, — Growth of the North Atlantic Ferry and the great ship lines ; pools and combines; aids to navigation, lighthouses, life-saving, safety at sea; line service from American ports; railroad lines and "feeder" lines; reciprocal influence of labor migrations, shipbuilding, and ship lines ; shipping conditions and outlook. 'From information circulars issued by Columbia UDiversity. 62 TRAINING FOB FOREIGN SERVICE. BAXLw^r •mrwjxi akd rates. This counse is dmgiied to meet tbe needs of traffic men employed either by laUroad companies or by mdustrial establiabiDents wbicb receive or send out products by rail. A description of the present railway system of the United States, an analysii of its work, and a study of the business organization of a railroad corporation will indicate the nature and extent of the railway service and the character of the machinery developed to perform it. A study of the functions and duties of ajQ industrial traffic department will show the nature of the or^caniz^tioa devel- oped to purchase the services of the railroads and to represent the dippers in their ordinary business relations with the carriers. < Tlie mos;t important part of contact between railroad and sbi|^)er is the transportation rate. The first step in rate making is classification. The general principles of classification will be discnsaed and an* explanation given for tlie necessity of applying special or commodity rates instead of class rates to many articles of traffic. Each of the three letUling classifications of the United State$ wlU be analyzed, particular attention being given to the ^>ecial rules and rego- latkms of each. Problems of dasslfleatioKi will he presented for outside invest!* gation and class discussion. The rules of the Interstate Conunerce Commission for the publication and HI- tog of tariifjs, as given in Tariff Oironlar 18-A, will be fully discussed, and tbe construction of local tariffs, Interline tariffs, and agency tariffs will he described. Because of peculiar conditions of topography or of economic develc^iment, varying types of rate stmctnres have come into existence in different sections of the United States. The chief feature of the rate systems of the eastern, fiovthem, and western territories will be explained, and consideration given to the modifications brought about by the rulings of the Interstate Oommerce Com- mission under the " long-and-short-haul " clause of the Mann-Elkins Act of 1910. The use of freight shipping papers, such as the bill of lading, the arrival notice, the freight bill, the delivery receipt, and the waybill will be studied, and instruction given concemijig the preparation of these various papers. Special problems of freight transportation, such as car service and demurrage and freight claims will receive attention; a thorough study -of the conference ■ rulings of the Interstate Commerce Commission will be required. Soxne time will be devoted to a study of the passenger, mail, and express busi- ness of the railways, and a comparison made of the rates and services afforded by the express and the parcel post. The lost part of the year will be given to the consideration of the present methods of the regulation of railroads by Stiite governments and by the Federal Government The reading of the act to regulate commerce will be required, and a careful analysis made of its provisions. An estimate of the effectiveness and adequacy of tlie present system of regulati^ear of eleineaitaTy eo»iuMx>k;8 before be^^iasiing these courses. If the curriculum of any particular college te so arranged that most of the freshman and 6ophQm', 1920. Xiaaghlin. J. L». Money and prices. New York. Scrlbner, 15)20. 314 p. Vitcbeli, Wesley C. Economic cycles. Berkeley, Calif., University of California, 191«. 610 p. Vntaleman, M. W. Wortd's ppincipai monetary Rystems. New York, Banking Ijaw Journal, 1M2. 59 p. . « -v^« Nojes, A. D. Forty years of American finance. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1909. tJalted Btatea. Department of the Treasury. Bnroati of the Mint. Report of the director. ^ ^ Circular no. 52. See also under Theory and History of Banking. THEORY AND HISTORY OF BANKING. (Three hours a week, spring term, sophomore or junior year.) Classes of banks; operations of a commercial hank; the bank statement; loans and discounts ; relation between the bank and the borrower ; bank notes ; deposits and checks; the clearing house; domestic exchange; bank organization and admlDistration ; banks and the Government; American banking before the Civil War; European banking systems; the Canadian banking system; banking in South America and tlie Orient; the national banking system; bank- iDg reform kn the United States; tlae Federal Reserve System; State banks and trust companies. HEFERENCBS. Cinnon, J. G. Clearing houses and currency, l^ew York, J. 6. Cannon, 1913. Catterall, R. C. The second bank of the United States. Chicago, Univeralty ©f Chicago, 1803 'Chaddock. E. E.« and Bewey. Btafe banjdn^ hefooe the Civil Wac Washingtoii, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1010. 54 TRAINING FOB- FOMitGN SERVICE. Chamberlain, Lawrence. The principles of bond investment. New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1911. 551 p. Conant, C. A. PrlncipJt»s of money and banking. New York, Harper & Bros., 1905. History of modern banks of issue. 4th ed. New York, Q. P. Putnam's Sons, 1900. Dunbar. C. F. Theory and history of banking. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1917. 297 D. Ettinger, R. P., and Golieb, D. E. Credits and collections. New York, New York tJnl versity Press Book Store, 1917. 390 p. Foster, M. B. Banking. New York, Alexander Hamilton Institute 1917. 348 p. Herrick.Clay. Trust companies. New York, Bankers' Publishing Co^ 1915. 502 p. Holdswortb. J. T. Money and banking. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1917. 511. p. Kemmerer, E. W. Modern currency reform ; a history and discussion of recent reforms in India, Porto Rico, Philippine Islands, Straits Settlements, and Mexico. New York, Macmillan Co., 1916. 564 p. Postal Savings. Princeton, N. J., Princeton University Press, 1917. 176 p. ■ Seasonal variations in the relative demand for money and capital In the United States. United States Senate document, 61st Congress, 2d session. 1911. 517 p. Kinley, David. The independent treasury. Washington, D. C, Government Printlngf Office, 1916. 370 p. Kirkbride, F. B., and Sterrett, S. E. The modern trust company. New York. Macmillan Co., 1921. 540 p. Lauffhlln, .T. L. Banking progress. New York, Scribner, 1920. 349 p. Myrick. Herbert. The Federal farm loan system. New York, Orange Judd & Oo., 1916. 239 p. National Monetary Commission. Publications. United States. Department of the Treasury. Comptroller of the Currency. Reports. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office. F'ederal Reserve Bo.ird. Annual reports and bulletins. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office. White, Horace. Money and banking illustrated by American history. 5th ed. New York, Ginn & Co.,. 1921. 425 p. Willis, H. P. American banking. Chicago, I^ Salle Extension University, 1916. 361 p. BANKING I'RACTICE. (Three hours a week, fall term. Junior or senior year.) Opening an account; deposits; deposit record; paying checks; bank loans; collateral loans; real estate loans; establishing credit; bank accounting; de- positors* accounts; the transit department; duties of officers. REFERENCES. Agger, E. E. Organized banking. New York, Holt. 1918. .^85 p. Bagchot, Walter. Lombard street. New York,.Dutton, 1920. 348 p. Barrett A. R. Modern banking methods. New York, Bankers' Pub. Co., 1911. 325 p. Chamberlain, Lawrence, llie work of a bond house. New York, Moody Magazine & Book Co., 1912. 157 p. Fiske. A. K. Modern bank. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1904. KnlfDn, W. H. The practical work of a bank. New York, Bankers* Pub. Co., 1916. 644 p. United States. Department of the Treasury. Comptroller of the Currency. Instrue- tionK relative to the organization of a national bank. Washington, Goyernment Printing Office. Wolfe, O. IL Practical banking, Chicago, La Salle Extension University, 1917. 290 p. N« f alfto Instructions relative to State banking issued by various State bank superintendents. FOREIGN EXCHANGE. (Three hours a week, spring term, Junior or senior yefir.) Monetary systems of the world ; rates of exchange ; foreign remittances ; bills of exchange ; work of the exchange box ; financing of exports ; financing of Imports; finance bills; arbitrage; gold shipments; exchange and the rates of interest; exchange and the securities market; sterling exchange; French ex- change ; German exchange ; exchange with other countries. REFERENCES. Brooks, H. K. Foreign exchange textbook. Chicago, Foreign Exchange Publishing Co., 1906. Hasten, H. T. Money, exchange, and banking. London, Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, ltd., 1907. Escher, F. Elements of foreign exchange. New York, Alexander Hamilton Institute, 1913. Foreign exchange explained. New York, Macmillan Co. Gardner, J. P. The moneys of the world. New York, Bankers' Publishing Co., 1909. Margraff, Anthony W. International exchange. New York, Anthony W. Margraff, 1912. 299 p. £ca:5^0Mics. 55 Mahleman. M. W. World's principal monetary systems. New York. Banking Law Journal, 1912. 59 p. Korman, J. H. Complete guide to the world's 29 metal-money systems. . London, S. I/)w, Marston & Co., 1892. Patterson. K. L. S. Domestic and foreign exchange, New York, Alexander Hamilton Institute, 1917. 298 p. Pratt, S. S. Work of Wall street. New York, Appleton, 1921. Shu^'rup. M. J. Problems in foreign exchanjxo. New York, Appleton, 1920. Unit*Hl States. Department of the Treasury. Keports of the Director of the Mint. \*Tilteliead, A. C. Foreign exchange. New York, Appleton. 1921. York, Thomas. Foreign exchange. New York, Uonald, 1920. INTERNATIONAL BANKING AND FOREIGN EXCHANGE. By Iba B. Cross, Professor of Economics, University of California, In many universities the study of international banking and foreign exchange is made part of a general introductory course in money and banking, while in others where the subjects of money and banking are treated in separate courses it Ls discussed in the course in banking. Comparatively few institutiDns devote a semester solely to its consideration. T^he importance of the subj(*ct of foreign exchange was early recognized at the University of California, where almost 20 years ago Dr. Carl C. Plehn added it to the curriculum of the economics depart- ment of that institution. In the last few years other universities have done likewise. My experience leads me to believe that international banking and foreign exchange should be given as a separate three-unit one-semester course and should follow the elementary work in money and banking. As the curriculum of an economics department is usually outlined, the beginning course in economics is given in the sophomore year. Students desiring to specialize in the field under discussion should therefore take the introductory work in money and banking during the first semester of their junior year, following it with the study of international banking and foreign exchange in the second semester. The lectures and discussion should be based upon a textbook, of which we are having an increasingly large number published each year. An opportunity should be constantly afforded the class to ask questions, because the practices of foreign exchange are always difficult for beginners to understand. Exercises and problems should be assigned from time to time, so as to acquaint the students with the banking forms used, the different types of foreign exchange documents employed, and the methods followed in figuring the buying and sell- ing rates of the various kinds of exchange. As to the content of the course, it has been found advisable to begin in- struction by devoting about two weeks to a discussion of domestic exchange. Students more easily grasp the principles underlying exchange transactions when the money of only one country is involved. This part of the course may well cover the following matters: The definition of domestic exchange; the agencies used in the settlement of accounts between merchants and others in different parts of the United States, such as bank drafts, money orders, ac- ceptances (bank and trade), letters of credit, etc., and the advantages and dis- advantages of each; methods of protest; indorsements; liability of drawer, drawee, and indorsers; and factors affecting rates of domestic exchange. Then passing to a discussion of international banking and foreign exchange, the course readily proceeds along the following lines : The definition of foreign exchange; foreign exchange in theory ; classes of bills of exchange and how^ they are used, such as, clean and documentary bills, drafts drawn against securities, bankers* demand drafts, bankers' long bills, letters of credit, travelers' cheques, express and postal money orders, cables, etc. ; characteristics of the foreign ex- change market, dealers, international banking relations, etc. ; rates of exchange, r56 TRAINING FOR FOMilGN SERVICE. par of exchange, metbods of Quoting exchange rates on varioos countries, fae- tore nmkiug for fluctnatioiis in ratehi; the gold movement, cause for export and import for gold, and the mechanism employed ; how money is made In for- eign exchange transactions; effect of the World War on the exchange market, and finally exercises and discussion of practices arising in connection with the actual buying and selling of exchange, conversion, expected rates of profits, etc A term paper involving A careful and detailed study of the fbreign exchange relations of a particular country is of very real assistance to the student by enabling him to see more clearly how the principles discussed throughout the course apply in actual practice. REFERENCES. Textbooks. Brown, H. Q. International trade and oxchange. New York, Macmillan Co., IMl 153-197 p. Xischer, F. Elem^ntB of forei^D exch&ngv^. New York, Alexander Hamilton Iitstitnte, 1913. Forelgm exehanfe explained. Neif York, Macmillan Co., 1917. 219 p. Margraff, Autbon.v W. International exchange. New York, Anthony W. Margraff, 1912. 299 D. Patterson, E. L. fi. Domeatie and foreign exchange. N«w York, AJezander Hamilton Institute, 1917. 298 p. The following books are also excellent references : Brooks, H. K. Foreign exchange textbook. Chicago, Foreign Exchange Pub. Co.. 1906. Clare, George. The A B C of foreign exchange. New York, Macmillan Co., 189S. Ooscben, G. .1. Foreign exchange. New York, Charles Scribner's Bens. Iiondon, E. Wil- son, 1898. Patt&TEson, E. L. 8. Notes on foreign exchange. Totontov Can.. Shaw Corraspondeoee School, 1916. Spalding, Wm. F. Foreign exchange and foreign bUla. New York, tfir Isaac Pitman ft Sofi8, 191^. 216 p. Withers, Hartley. Money changing. New York, B. P. Dutton A Co., 1918. 183 p. — — War and Lombard street. New York, E. P. Dutton ft Co., 1916. ITl p. The following references contain money and conversion tables for figuring forei^ exchang:e : Brooks, n. K. Foreign exchange textbook. Chicago, Foreign Exchange Pub. Co., 1906. Davis. E. D. Foreign exchange tables. Minneapolis, Minn., E. D. Davis, 1912. 195 p. Gonzales, V. Modern foreign exchange. New York, C. S. Hammond & Co., 1914. ,V2 o. Margraff, Anthony W. International exchange. New York, Anthony W. Margraff, 1912. 299 n Norman, J.' H. Universal cambist. New York. G. P. Putnam's Sons. Spalding, W. F. Eastern exchange, currency, and Anance. New York, Sir Isaac Pitman ft Sons, 1920. 404 p. €(tern, C. A. Arbitration and parities of exchange. New Yoi^, C. A. Stern ft Co., 1901. Tate. Modern cambist. Two revisions, one by J. Westly-GIbson, the other by H. Schmidt. Whltaker, A. C. Foreign exchange. New York. Appleton & Co., 1919. York, T. Foreign exchange. New York, Ronald Press, 1920. 182 p. INVESTMENTS—BTOC^ AND PRODUCE EXCHANGE— €OMMIBI»ON AND BROKERAGE PRACTICE. By H£NSY Hand Hatfieud, Dean of the Familties, University of California, The Study of investments has but recently found a recognized plaee In tbe curriculum of the commercial course. ConBlderable literature has appeared, but nmch of it makes no attempt at scientific treatment and is little more than meretricious advloe as to how one can malte a successful turn in the stock market. Even the more scientific and scholarly works, for the most part, dis- cuss only American markets and conditions, and have only an indirect bearing on the problems of foreign trade. Thus, the standard text on investmentB, used by business houses, as well as by colleges, makes no reference whatever to foreign securities and markets, and one might infer from its i)erusal that bonds were issued by no Government other than that of the United States. But tlie war has done away with oar hsolation. Particularly in a fiourae desicned to ECaNOMIOS. £7 train far foreign trade, foreign as well as domestic Investments mnst be con- jideied. Tbis Is true, not so mnch because dealing in foreign inventments Is in itself a form of international trade, as because the transfer of investment seenritles is one of the most obvious means of paying for imports. In the past tliifl fass been true to a mlxior degree. It has been a striking phenoiueiion during the recent war; it will probably be continuously impoitant in future trade between Amerloa and Burope. Already the ehanged attitude has been typified by a seriflB of articles published by the American Aflsoeiation of Social and Mhical Science under the title '* America's changing inve»tmeut market." The course on investments should Include the following matters: The form and characteristics of various types of investments; the basis of security in torestments; and elements of investment value. The student should examine specific securities, making such investlgatioDS as are properly made by the investment dealer before undertaking to handle an issue. Such matters are noognised as a part of any course on investments. A course bearing on foreign trade idiould emphasise also the broader aspects of the investment market, such, for instance, as are brought out in C. K. Hobson*s " The export of capital," and J. A Hobson's " An economic interpretation of investment." Attention should also be given to tlie great financial movements so admirably treated in Mitchell's "Seonomic cycles." Caution must be taken lest the study of price movements degenerate, as in so many popular treatiaes, into a mera attempt to forecast profitable apeenlations on a margin. The eourse in investments ahonld follow courses in the principles of economics, accounting, statistical methods, and the mathematical princaplea involved in the calculation of net yield. This last-named subject is sometimes included fn the course In Investments, {preferably it tfiould be given in a preliminary mathematical course being most conveniently handled in connection with the allied topics of annuities, depreciation, sinking funds, etc. A general survey of corporation finance is also preferably given as a prerequisite to, rather than as a part of, the course in Inveatments. Stock exchanges are necessarily considered in connection with the study of iDTestmenta. The closely allied activities of produce exchanges have been mere neglected in the college curriculum, although they are perhaps far more significant in relation to foreign trade. Foreign schools have given much more attOBtioB to the details of au^ organiaed markets than have the scrhoals in this country. This is doubtless justified by the fact that in Europe the colleges of commerce have been preeminently training schools for foreign trade, while in America, foreign trade having been relatively inaignifieaFit, interest centered on the home market. But now, when training for foreign trade is innierative, the schools of B^gium and France may well serve os models. The Insitltut Snperleur de Commerce, of Antwerp, founded in 1852, is one of the most successftd as well as one of the oldest of such schools. Students in the third year are given a course dealing with the exchanges of Tendon, Paris, Brussels, Antwerp, Amsterdam, Berlin, and New York. In addition attention is paid to the ^epoeral markets of JEgypt. Canada, South America, China. Java, Straits Settlements, and Ceylon. About one-fourth of the Belgians who have graduated from the Antwerp school are located in England, South America, Singapore, India, Tunis, Congo Free State, Japan, China, and Cuba. In addition to lliese, a very large number are located in other countrl^ in continental Bufope, With «ttch an array of trained commercial emlssariee, it is not sur- prising that Belgian f6relgn trade is so highly developed. No ««uch program is attempted in American schools. If the United States is at all to rival Belgium hi Its Telattve standing in the world markets, it is necessary to furnish instruc- tion in "file organisation, forms, and prooedure of feieign markets. 58 TTIAINING FOR POMEIGN SERVICE, The technic of the organized markets — commissions, brokerage, etc. — is a matter which must be dealt with in connection with the study of the stock, produce, and other exchanges. This has generally been but lightly touched upon in American colleges, save as it relates to American practice. While the student preparing for foreign trade should not be encumbered with a mass of details which he can neither remember nor use, he should be informed as to the main features of trade customs in foreign countries, and should know where to look for supplementary details. Un fortunately t on these subjects there is a paucity of good treatises in the English language, and a still greater lack in those especially adapted to American students. The subjects touched on above are best studied in the last year of the course in commerce. They require considerable background, and some specific pre- liminary training, as, for instance, that in mathematics. Not less than three hours a week throughout a year should be allowed for these subjects. Thi» time should be exclusive of that devoted to cognate subjects such as banking, foreign exchange, etc., which may form separate courses and are elsewhere considered in this report. REFERENCES. Investments, Stock and Produce Exchanges, Brokerage and Comm4ssUms, American Academy of Political and Social Science. American produce cxcbange maiiceti. In Annals, vol 38, no. 2. (Sept., 1911.) America's changing Investment market. In Annals, vol. 68. (Nov., 1916.1 Bonds as Investment securities. In Annals, vol. 30, no. 2. (Sept.. 1907.) ■ Stocks and the stock market. In Annals, vol. 35, no. 3. (May, 1910.) Each of the above titles refers to a collection of articles by various authors, deal- ing with different phases of the subject. The last named also contains an extensive bibliography. Babson, Roger w. lUisiness barometers. 10th ed. Wellesley Hills, Babson's St&tlBticai Organization, 1917. 425 p. Brodhurst, B. E. The law and practice of the stock exchange. London, 1907. Chamberlain, Lawrence. The principles of bond investment. New York, H. Holt & Co., 1911. 551 p. The most comprehensive and serviceable general treatise. Conwnv, Thomas, and Atwood, A. W. Investment and speculation. New York, Alexan- der Hamilton Inst., 1916. 511 p. Day, J. E. Stock-broker's office organization, management and accounts. London, Bit Isaac Pitman and Sons, 1912. 231 p. Dos Passes, John R. A treatise on the law of stockbrokers and stock exchanges. New York, 1905. Duguid, Charles. How to read the money article. London, E. Wilson, 1902. The story of the stock exchange. London, G. Richards, 1901. Emery, Henry C. Speculation on the stock and produce exchanges of the United States. New York, Longmans, Green & Co., 1896. (Columbia University studies in history, economics, and public law, vol. 7, no. 2.) Fisher, Irving, and others. How to invest when prices are rising. Scranton, Pa., Q. Lynn Sumner & Co., 1912. 144 p. Goldman, S. P. A handbook of stock exchange laws. New York, N. Bender & Co., 1914. 290 p. ^ Greenwood. W. J. Foreign stock exchange practice and company laws of all the chief countries of the world. London, 1911. Guenther, Louis. Investment and speculation. Chicago, La Salle Extension Universtty* 1916. 289_j). Hirst, Francis W. The stock exchange. New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1911. 256 p. ITobRon, C. K. The export of capital. New York, Macmillan Co., 1914. 264 p. Hobson. John A. The economic interpretation of investment. London, 1914. Jones, Edward D. Investment. New York, Alexander Hamilton Institute. 1917. 362 j^ Mead. Edward Sherwood. The careful Investor. Philadelphia, J. B. LIpplncott Co., 1914. 289 p. Mitchell, Wesley C. Economic cycles. Berkeley. Calif., University of California, 1913. 610 p. Pratt. Sereno S. The work of Wall Street. New York. D. Appleton & Co., 1912. 440 p. Raymond, W. L, American and foreign investment bonds. Boston, Houghton Hifnin Co., 1916. 324 p. ^ ,^,^ Rollins, Montgomery. Money and investments. Boston, Financial Pub. Co., 1917. 494 p. Skinner. Ernest B. The mathematical theory of investment. Boston, Glnn & Co., 1913. 245 p. Spragiie. Charles B. The accountancy of Investment. New York, Ronald Press Co., 1914. .S71 p. ^ « Todman, Frederick S. Brokerage accounts. New York, Ronald Press Co., 1916. 338 p. United States Bureau of Corporations. Report of the commissioner of corporations on cotton exchanges. Washington, D. C. Government Printing Office, 1908-9. Van Antwerp, William C. The stock exchange from within. Garden City, N. Y., Double- day, Page & Co., 1918. 459 p. ^- « Withers, Hartlev. Stocks and shares. New York, B. P. Dutton k Co., 1910. 372 p. Young, T. E. A plain guide to investment and finance. London, 1909. New York, spectater Co., 1909. ECONOMICS. 59 COMPARATIVE FINANCE AND TAXATION. By George E. Putnam, Professor of Economics, W Univeraitj/. The subject matter of Government finance, now one of the well standardized courses of study in the curricula of most American colleges and universities, may be indicated briefly as follows : I. Government expenditures: The difference between public and private ex- poidltures ; economy, regularity, and purpose In expenditures ; the growth and significance of the expenditures of central and local governments in modern times. II. Government revenues: (a) Revenues from public lands, the post office, and public industries; the conditions under which governments should engage in industrial undertakings; (b) fees, special assessments, and taxes as sources of revenue ; the canons of taxation ; the meaning of " equitable " taxation ; pro- portional, progressive, and regressive rates; (c) the forms and incidence of taxation — ^property, income, inheritance, customs, excise, corporation, capita- tion, business and license taxes ; the relative importance of these taxes in the fiscal systems of leading nations; problems of administration; (d) the value of current proposals for reform in the tax system and in the administration of tax laws ; the single tax ; the proper balancing of Federal, State, and local revenue systems in the United States. III. Government debts (a source of revenue to be Justified by the character of the expenditure contemplated) : The history of national debts as to charac- ter, purpose, amount, and administration; industrial loans, deficiency loans, ' breadwinner, directly or indirectly, justly or unjustly ; It is at all times a factor affecting the satisfaction of human desires, the expenditure of human effort, and the distribution of wealth ; and it is a powerful weapon when used as a means of effecting social or economic reforms. Now that the World War has thrust upon governments greater financial responsibilities than ever before, the subject has come to have a new importance not only In the college classroom but also in the public press. Some of the larger problems are centered about the means of raising the necessary revenue without impeding proper business activity or giving rise to class feeling and gross Inequality. It makes a good deal of difference, so far as the welfare of the masses is concerned, whether the financial obligations are met out of revenue from Increased taxa- tion or from bond issues, though but few appreciate the relative merits and demerits of either method. So Important has the study of these public questions become that a number of universities now definitely presciTbe government finance as a required subject for all undergraduates majoring in economics. For those seeking a general knowledge of government finance, the following works may be recommended : ESFEKENCES. Adams, H. C. TTie stoleii(»e of flnance. !^ew Torft, Honry Holt ft Co., 18M. Poblie debts. Npw York, I>. Appl^ton is Co., 1^92. Bastablo. C. F. Public financo. 3d ed. Now York, Macmlllan Co., 1008. Bullock, C. 3. Selected r<>adlBg* t& puMIc UMatce. Bo0toa, Gtim h Co., ia06w Collins, C. W. The national bud^jet system. Now York, Macmlllan Co., 1917. 151 p. American flnancp. Washington. 1>. C, Government Prfnting Office, 1018. 58 p. IMniels. W. H. The elements of public finance. New York. Benry Holt & Co., X809. KIv, U. T. Taxation in American States and cities. New York, T. Y. Crowcll & Co., 1888. Firlebrown, C. B. The A B C of taxation. Boston. C. B. FIll«'brown, 1909. 2M p. The principles of natural taxation. Chicago, A. C. McClwrg & Co., 1917. 281 p. Ls'on, Hastings. Principles of taxation. Boston, Hongbton Mifflin Co., 1914. Nicholson, J. H. War finance. London, P. i^. King ft Son, ltd.. 1917. Plehii, C. C. Introduction to public finance. New York, Macmlllan Co., 1915. 480 Gorernmeftt ftsance In tHe United States. Obloago, A. C. UcClurg ft Co HO p. , 1910. 166 p. ReliJjman, E. R. A. RwajB In taxation. New York, Macmlllati Co., 191S. TOT p. Progreeslye taxation In theory and practice. Itbaca, N. Y., Ameriean Bconomic Association, 1008. Tbe tncomo tax. Veft York, SCacmilUin Co., 1914. 7^ p. — The shifting and incidence of taxation. Now York. Lemckc & Bucchner Pub. Co. COMPARATIVE CORPORATION LAWS AND FINANCE, By Charles W. Gebstek'berg. DireoU^r of Finanoe, School of Commerce, Accounts and Finance, New York University, Since exporting from the rnltet! States will attract oar larger hid««tiie» chiefly, and 9tnce these are ori^anizecl on the corporate plan, the man or woman who i.s about to prepare for work ha the foreigai field may well fndTide in bis or her fctndies the subject of comparative corporation laws and finance. Tt^'o plans are ordinarily open to an American concern doho^ bminesa In m foreiini conntry: To form a separate corporation In the country or to apply for permission for the American company to do business tbere; to be svne a HktcA metbed mty lie sdeiwted, p«rmtttiiig a locttT eouieem to tttt&oii to the Mneas as cfwmar of ths American ooneem^a- gDed» w ma eondignee, but the Qtt of tid» metlmd depftxRBs to Bome extent the AmmicaaL (lonoam of the absolute control of its own business. Before any on« of these metliods of doing bnalness in a forel^ eemxtiy can be selected, the bualneflp man* will hare to imow something' about how eorporar tten&may be fonnedin. ftuxriga (nmntiiesi who may be the incorpomtors^ burdena llaced on ewnerehip of the stiKk^ and like qaesttons. The vestrictions on fte'ewnerahip of pgppaitSf by foneigD corporatiaMi nuntbe eans&dered. Always the tax laws must be studied carefully. In GertilQ countriea and- for certain puvpeses^ it will be almost absolutely neeessaiT to crgSBlKe local compaoiies. It must be remembered that the dl vision of business organizations into partnerships and corporations holds good only for the Euglish-speaking countries. In the Eatin and Teutonic countries many other fofSBg- of aaaociatieii- are in ctfnmen uafe While it wUL not be neeeseary ordinariljr to understand the intricacies of fiDB&chig, since ftin^ wiH be supplied by l^e home concern and no sale of interests in the foreign* company will be sought to be made, the student should fe a geneni! way have some understanding of local laws pertaining to the forms of stock or ether interenhf of ownership and to the conditions under which they may be issued. Whether a concern, operates a mere branch or owns a sub^diary, the local managers will have to understand the local laws governing- the relation of creditor and* debtor. lo some foreign coontrfea ttie acconntlng of corporations Is elos^y regu* lated. Laws pertaining to this subject will have to be- studied, a-* will also the rules pertaining to the distribution of profits. Moreover, since corporations *o!hg an extensive business in any country ai« Ilkel!^ to come into contact with insolvent concerns, the laws of banldruptcy and of reorganization will demand considtfsatleiL Tf^o methodii of storing the subject are possible: The one, theoretically ropertor, is t^ simdy one phase of ttie law or of corporrate financing at a time and then to compaiie the laws and practices of 13ie several eomntrles ;. the other method is the more practical and will probably commend Itself to students, since it makes for economy of thne, effort, and memory. This method con- sists of studying the entire subject of corporation laws and the practice of finance as they are found In a gtven country. Aa country after country is investigated, the same general outline may be used. Some such simple scheme aa this may be followed : I. Corporation lawa: 1. Organlxfttioa — kinds and methods^ 2. Ownership — kinds, rights, obligationa 3. Management. 4. Relation to Stnte. 5. Taxes and reports. 6. Insolvent corporations and reorganizations. 11. Corporation finance: 1. Bormwing fondfl; 2. Accounting. 3. Declaration of profits. 4. Speeiai pgcaetieeB. 62 TRAINING FOB FOBEIGN SERVICE. In every case a study of foreign laws and finance should be based on a thor- ough understanding of the principles of American law and finance. Variations from the American standard will be readily understood and retained in the memory. Unfortunately, few books have appeared in the English language dealing with the laws and practices of corporation finance in foreign countries. Many books, however, have been written in foreign languages, but they are not readily available for the ordinary student. In compiling the following short bibliography the author has had in mind the practical necessity of sticking as far as possible to the English texts. The following bibliography of works of South American countries is supplied by the librarian of the financial library of the National City Bank of New York: REFBRE>NC£». GlNEBAL TBZTS ON CORPORATION FINANCE TO Bl USSD AS A FOUKDAHON. Dewing, A. 8. Financial policy of corporations. New York, Ronald Press, 1920. 5 vols. Qerstenbecg, CliarleB W. Materials of corporation finance. New York, Preotice-HalL Inc.. 1916. 1023 p. Lough, W. U. Baslness finance. New York, Ronald Presa 1917. 681 p. Lyon. W. Hastings. CspitaliEation and corporation finance. Boston, Houghton Mifliin Co., 1912. 296 p. Mead, Bdward Sherwood. Corporation finance. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1915. 478 p. Bngland. Cooper, F. ShewelL Secretafial practice, the manual of the Chartered Institute of Sec- retaries. London, Spottlswood A Co.. 1912. Gore-Brown, F. Handbook on the formation, management, and winding up of Joint- stock companies. 31st ed. London. Jordan & Sons. ltd.. 1911. Mulvey. Thomas. Canadian companv law. John Lovell & Son, ltd., 1913. Young, E. Hilton. Foreign companies and other corporations. New York, G. P. Put- nam*B Sons, 1912. 832 p. France. Largarde, Paul, and Batardon, Leon. Les soci^t^s commercia]e& Paris, H. Donod & E. Prust. 1917. Oermanp. Wolff, Emil, and Birkenblhl, F. Die Praxis der Finanzierung. Otto Llebman, 1914. For these countries and the other countries, see the 35-volume compilation of the Commercial laws of the world- American edition, by William Bowstead, general editor. Bostead Book Co.. 1911. This book contains admirable bibliographies, from which special texts on corporation laws of the several countries can be selected. Bee also Commercial laws of England, Scotland, Germany, and France, by Archi- bald J. Wolfe. Government Printing Office, 1916. Corporation Law and Finance^ Argentine Republic. Blanco, Jos^. The crisis : nationalization of foreien capital. 1916. C6digo de comercio de la Rcpi^bllca Argentina y Ordenanzas de aduana, 1914. ColoccK^n de c6digos de la Repdblica Argentina. Leyes naclonalee, 190(^1917. Ministorlo de Obras Publioas. Ley 6315 sobre concesiones de ferrocarriles ; su dls- cuRi6n parlamentaria y decretos reglamentarios. Leyes 6703 y 6369. 1913. Municipalidad del Rosario. Ordenanzas general de impuestos para el ailo 1916. Provlncla de La RIoJa. Leyes de hacienda. Provincia de Tucumfin. Compilacidn ordenada de leyes, decretos y mensajes del perfodo constituclonal. v. 3-7. Leyes para fomento de la Industrla y de la agricultura, 1914. Mensajps. leyes y decretos. Abril de 1918-ADril de 1916. Becopilacidn de leyes usuales, 1917. Repfibllca Argentina. Direccidn de economla rural y estadistica. Estatutos de cooper* ativas agricolas. Bolivia, Anuarlo de leyes y disposiciones supremas de 1914, compiladas por Grcgorio Reynolds. Cuestiones econ Arnicas ; Despues de la crisis. 1909. Flnanzas pr&cticas, 1915. I..egi9laci6n ferroviaria, 1918. Ministerio de Justicia e Industrla. Ley de priyllegios industriales, 1917. Olazo, Nestor JerOnimo. Prlvilegios industrlales y marcas de fabrica, 1910. Braail, Decree No. 1102, Nov. 21, 1903. creating regulations for the establishment of companies for carrying on the services of general warehouses and determining the rights and obligations of these companies. ECONOMICS. 63 MoBtelro, Jo&o. Proc«mo civil e commercial, 1912. NoTtes, Fereira de. Gnia practlca do sejruro terrestre, 1905. Orlando. Codi^ commercial. 27. 1912. Portella, Bento Eknllio Machado. Gula practlca para a olxteiiQfto de prlyileglos e patentefl indostriaeis. . . 1883. Tarqulnlo e Monten^ro. Lels nsnaes, 1903. Tampre, Spencer. Codlgo ciyll brasileiro. ChOe. Lerea promulcadaa en Chile 1882-1911. RecopiIad6n ae leyes, reglamentos e instrncdones sobre la admlnlstraddn en general. . g' 1914. Colombia^ Lejes colombianas de 1909. Pineres, Edoardo Rodriguez. Con8tltucl6n y leyes asuales de Colombia, 1913. • C6dlgo fiscal colombiano, 1913. Uribe, Antonio Jos^. Derecbo mercantll colomblano. Yelez y rlbe. C6dlgo de mlnas colcmblano, 1905. Metpioo, Banco Central Mexlcana. Las sodedades andnimaa de Mexico, 1908. Peru, Amao. Leglslad5n de mlnas, 1909. Uruffua^> Naera compilacl6n de las leyes, decretos, reglamentos de aduana j demas dlsposdonea Gobre comerdo e Industrfa nacional. 1831-1883. Venezuela, Ley de mlnas y sn reglamento. 1918. Goitlca, N. Veloz. Esbozo geogr&fico, recursos natnrales, legislaclOn, condiciones eco- ndmicas, desarroUo alcanzado, prospecto de fntnro desenyolyimlento, 1904. Periodieala. II Corriere economlco. L'Economlste enropeen. Kzportatear fran^als. Journal des economistes. Notlziarlo commerciale. Recenll des lois suisses. Revista de bancos, ferrocarriles, segnros y comerdo. Revlsta comerclal. Revista econdmlca. La Bemana flnandera. ReTlsta de economla y flnanzas. ReTue flnanci^re & economlque d*Italle. INSURANCE COURSES IN THE PREPARATION FOR FOREIGN TRADE WORK. By ROBEBT RiEQEL, ProfeBsor of Insurance and Btati8tic8, Univertity of Pennaplvanick The foundations of a foreign trade course are the subjects of broad scope which form a background for and an introduction to studies of particular phases of economic life. As the average student's time is at least fully occupied In college by approximately 24 hours of clas&-work per week, the first year is easily consumed by these fundamental courses. The second and third years indnde a continuation of some of this fundamental work, but considerably more time is available for general business courses more closely related to the future work of one who expects to engage in foreign trade, such as accounting, the iDonetary and credit systems under which business is conducted, the domestic marketing systems for important commodities, the general principes of merchan- Bak«r, VoovhiB & Co., 1»18. 2d6 p. Duckworth, L. Epitome of the law affecting marine Insurance. London, Butterworth & Co., 1907. Eastern Underwriter, New YorlL Issue of January 2n, 1918, contains articles by various writers on different marine insnranee teipfes. Other IssQefi coatala repora o# ew- rent dievelopments in the biislBeHS. ETdrldffc, W. H. Marine policies. London, Kutterworth & Co., IJWT. Sriratt, C. B. Law of insaniAce. Indianapvlia, Bebta-MerrlU Co.,. XO^. Chaps. 17,. td, and 19. Ihrams, JTi»iiry. The rfta? relation of Insnrance t» baakfnff ami ^ikippfng In th^ w^rtcft t.i:ade after tbe^ war. New York, H. Eva«8^ American Eai^« Fire Insuraac^ Co^ 1911. 24 p. OMdsmith. P. Bfarfoe inB«ra9Ke act. in fesaiancp Inifttvte of New Sovth Wsleii, 1909. Gow, Wliiinm. Handbook of marine insurance. New York and London, Macmlllan Co., 191.'?. • Sea insurance. New York and I.4mdoB, Maemilla& Co., 1914, Great Rritaln. Board of Trade. Government war-risks fnsnrance scheme. Lon<1tm, Darlini; & Sons, 1915. Harrison, M. C. Abolishment of general average. San Francisco, M. C. HarrlsoB, Met- f*ttint's E*e^»an«p. 191&. 24 p. Ho^kinsr ManJey. Manual of aukrine- inauranee. Londoa, SnUtk, Slder k Co^, 1867. Handbook of average. London, Stevens & Sons, 1884. ■oiglk, B. Ov OctSB tnflc aa4 toftd^ GMeag&» Ia 8aUe BBt«Mi«n Untft^rsltj* 1914. 432 p. Chap. 10. Hncbner, Gm^r G. Afqrlciiltwnil 0¥6b STUDY OP FISCAL AND CTTSTOMS LEGISLATION. By L. S. Rows, Director General of the Pcm American Union, WaeMngton, D. C. This gQbJeft i» one of the iDost Important pertainlag to the currkMUum of a school of eonin^ree and finance. We see more' nnd mofe manifestations of go^- enunefttal regnlalUm of iaternational commerce; and it is neeessary that those who propoae to fit themselves for Intematiesal trade should be equipped with & general but accurate knowledfi^e of modenot tendencies in gm-erninental ragfflation. In order that later they may not worfc under a misunderstanding. The regulation of inlematio&Bl eommeree from the national point of view, in mc^ a way as at one and the same time to protect the public haterest and to interfere least with the conduct of priyate buatneas, has become a science. At the beginning, such regulation represented do scientifle principle. The purpose of regulation of trade was largely the natural one of securing revenue* The Government intended to make commerce from abroad bear tlie burden of 0i»vemnental adMinSatntion, as far as conpatible with the requirements of ttomestic trade. We ai» familiar In this country with the ancieiit slogan, "Let the foreigner pay the expenses of o«r Goireniueat" 66 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. Because of its purpose to secure revenue, public regulation of trade for a long time could not be carried on in a scientific manner. It proceeded from one detail to another* and almost never worked from a basis of principle. Through long years, governmental regrulation of trade grew simply by the process of accretion. There is nothing so difficult as to overcome routinary and traditional methods of doing things ; and rational reform of governmental regulation of commerce has been no easier to achieve than other improvements. Nevertheless, the struggle for simplicity has gone on, and with it a struggle for uniformity. These years of preparation for our present interest in the true nature of fiscal regulation of trade have seen a long and interesting series of efforts at international cooperation. International congresses of statistics, trade, and commerce have been held in Europe during the last 40 years, and the subject matter of the European gatherings has in turn formed a large part of the program of conferences in the United States and Latin America. As one of the most recent examples of this I may cite the International CJon- ference of Commercial Statistics, held at Brussels In 1913, which prepared a commercial statistical schedule for International use. This schedule was adopted by the International High Commission of the American Republics at its first general meeting in Buenos Aires in April, 1916, and it is likely that it will be adopted before long as the standard of commercial statistics through- out the hemisphere. A course of study in the field of fiscal legislation might be outlined some- what as follows: Documentation; consular activities; port dues; methods of appraisal; classification, for practical and statistical purposes. Obviously, some of these topics are of less importance than others. The subject of port dues has much less significance than those of classification and appraisal. The mastery of the technlc of customs documentation is simpier than a grasp of the duties of consular officers. The student must be well grounded in the underlying theory of tariff legislation and fiscal regulation, and this presupposes some fair knowledge of contemporary economic theories and political tendencies, as well as of the economic history of the United States. Mere study of the documents will hardly help him without this broad foundation of principle. The class should become acquainted with types of official Invoices and manifests, taking up at the same time, by way of comparison, railway and shipping companies* invoices, manifests and bills of lading. Collections of these consular 'documents may be secured directly from the consular repre- sentatives of the several nations, but they are to be found in various public documents and trade cyclopedias. The consular regulations of the United States and summarized translations of the consular regulations of the leading commercial countries should be put In the hands of students. Even though It may not be necessary to require a detailed knowledge of all the regulations, the more Important consular duties •should be thoroughly described. The difficulty in studying the subject of port dues arises from their endless variety In terminology. Incidence, and Jurisdiction. The requirements of the larger ports should be studied in detail, and so far as the United States is concerned, reference should be had to the excellent report entitled, " Ports of the United States," by G. M. Jones, Miscellaneous Series No. 33, Department of Commerce, Washington, 1916. The latest edition of the navigation laws should be studied In this connection. Of course, for the study of methods of appraisal, thorough and intelligent use must be made of the Unitetl States Customs Regulations. A codification of these regulations is in process, and the study of our customs system will be ECONOMICS. 67 greatly facilitated when this work shall have been completed. Reference may be made In this connection to the excellent reports published by the Department of Commerce and Federal Trade Commission In recent years. The report of the Inter-American High Commission, Foreign Trade CoimGil» of the American Manufacturers' Exxwrt Association, National Association of Manufacturers, the International Congresses of Chambers of Commerce, and many of the excellent publications of the Pan American Union should be at hand in carrying on such worls. A good collection of the translations of the tariff laws of the world is also essential. As to classification, the student must be shown how systems of classification were constructed, or more accurately, how they have been developed in the way most convenient for administrators and legislators. Frequent and careful use of tariff statistics Is the best method of teaching the system of statistical classification, and the student should be introduced to all the official statistical publications of the leading commercial countries of the world. It will be worth the instructor's while to secure as complete a collection of the most recent of these official bulletins. He should note that they are sometimes to be found as appendices to the reports of the ministers of finance, rather than as separate publications. Tariff classification, so far as the United States Is concerned, might profitably be studied in the reports of hearings before the Committees on Ways and Means of the House of Representatives, and on Finance, of the Senate. Some slight knowledge of the fiscal administrative codes which obtain in many countries governed under the system of modem Roman law will be de- sirable, if the student expects to understand the by-no-means-simple procedure occasionally necessary in fiscal cases. The bibliography of fiscal and customs legislation and regulation may be divided into tlie following three groups : I. Texts of national legislation and regulation. II. Texts of international agreements and the proceedings of international conferences on the uniformity of legislation and regulation. III. Manuals and treatises of administrative law. There follow a few titles, arranged in accordance with the foregoing. The list Is merely suggestive, even for the United States. Attention has been given to Latin America rather than to Europe, because of the fact that the fiscal literature of Europe is well Indexed in such bibliographies as that contained in Prof. Taussig's manual. ^ REFERENCES. I. Texts op National Leoislation and Regulation. BoUoia, Jolclos df* hacionda. La Paz, 1906. I-^yes orgfinica8 r reglamento g^^nera] do aduanas. Ln Paz, 1906. Banjlnea, A., and Saenz, R, Diccioaario comercial, adapt&do & la tarifa aduanera. La Paz, 1912. Brazil. Barretto, C. O. Rpposltorto alphabetlco da legislagfio de fazenda. Rfo de Janeiro, 1916. Costa Rica. Arancel de adaanas. 2 ed. San Jonfi, 1914. Scott. James Mc. Directorlo comercial y Arancel de aduanas de Costa Rica, San Jos^, 1908. Chile, Olguin, A. NoYlsima recopllacK^n de dlpposlciones aduaneras. Valparaiso, 1914. Ecuador. Ley orgftnica de aduanas. Quito, Ecuador. 88 TRAINING FOB FOBfiIGN SEBVICE. Reglamento de comercSo y aduanae del Pertl. Lima, 1911. UruffWHf- AntnfUa. V. B. Let^8laci6ti aduanera de la Bepflbllca Oriental del Uruguay. Mottterldeo, 1915. C0digo de aduanas, por Pablo V. GJoyena. 2 ed. Montevideo, 1910. Proyecto* de Ley y de Tarlfas de Aduana. Montevideo, 1910. Venexuela. COdlgro de hacienda. Caracas, 1012. Ley de arancel de derecbos de importact6n. Caracas, 1915. UMted State; Department of Comnaerce. Buroau of For«iim and Domestic Commerce. Foreign coin- merce and navigation. Washington, D. C., Government Printing Office, 1905. Tanir series. Department of the Treasury. IMviKion of customs. Compilation of customs laws. Waah* ington, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1908. (New edition in press.) -—.^ — Cn^stoniH regulations of the United States. Washington, D. C, Q<^- ernment Printing Office, 1915. ' — Treasury deci^dons. Wftsblngtou, D. C, Government Printing Office, This is a bound volume of the Weekly Decisions. It appears as the " customs edition " and the ** Internal -revenue edition," being a compilation of the respectire decisions. Published annually or semiannually. The Weekly Decisions includes the decisions of the Board of united States General Appraisers, the U. 8. Court of Customs Appeals, etc. Treasury decisions (1870-1918). Washington, D. C, Government Print- ing Office. Svans, W. W. Imports and duties, 1894-1907. Washington, D. C, Governmoit Print- ing Office, igos. Tariff acts, 1789-1897. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1898. Walker, J. E. Comparison of the tariff acts of 1909 and 1913. Washington, 1915. II. Tbxts of Ixtkuxational Agbkkments and thh Pboceedixgs op International Con- FBBENCES ON THE UNIFV)EMITT OF LEGISLATION AND REGULATION. Bureau of .\merlcan Republics (Pan American TTnion). Code of commercial nomencla- ture. 2 vols. In folio. Washington, D. C, 1897. Conf^Mnce Internationale de Bta- tlstique Commerciale. Actes. 2 vols. Bruxe)le«, 191.V1914. Conference de Paris de 1911 sur la Limitation de la Responsabllit* de Proprtetalres de Navires en Cae do Perte. etc. Actes. Antwerp, 1912. Congr^s de Commerce et de T Industrie. Actes. 2 vols. Bruxelles, 1897. Congr^s International d'Anvers sur la Legislation Douanldre. Actes. 2 vols. Antwerp, 1H98 CongT^s fnternatlooal de Droit Commercial d'Anrers (1885). Actes. Bruxelles, 1886. ConvenciOn de Bruselas, 1918. AlgunoB documeBtos relativos a la adopcl6n de un sls- tema de estadistica intemacional. . . . Se publica por acuerdo de Consejo Central Bjecutlvo. Washirgion, Imprenta nudonal. 1917. Customs Congress of 1903. Report. (Sen. Doc 180^ 67tli Cong., 2d sess.) Department of Commerce. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Foreign com- merce and navigation of tbe United States. Washington, D. C, Government Print- ing Office, 1905, ff. ■ (Tariff series.) ■ Tariff systems of South American countries, 1916. (Tariff series no. 34.) Federal Trade CommiKalon. Report on cooperation in American export trade. 2 vola WaRhington, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1916. Report on trade and tariffs in Brasll, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, and Peru. Wnshlngton, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1916. Foreign trade conventions. Reports. 4 vols. New York, 1914 ff. International High Commission. United States section. Report with appendices. Wash- ington, D. C, Goveninicnt Printing Office, 1916-17. (H. Doc 1788, 64th Cong., 2d sess., and S. Doc. 789, 64th Cong., 2d sess.) International C^ongress of Chambers of Commerce. Fifth Report. Boston, 1912. Nyssens, A., Dubois, J., and Mlssotten, A. Sources bibllographiques recueiUles en vue Congress International de Droit Comnerclal d'Anvers. Pan-Amerlran Commercial Conference. Washington, D. C, 19ll. Proceedings. Washington, D. C, 1915. Proceedings. Pan-American Conference. 1889-1890. Report. (Sen. Doc. 135, 51st Cong., 1st Sess.) , 1910. Fourth. Report of United States delegation. (Sen. Doc. 744, 61st Cong., 3d Sess.) . ^ Pan-American Scientific Congress. Second. Proceedings. Vol. 9. Washington, D. C, 1917. Report of the commission appointed under the act of Congress approved July 7, 1884, *' To ascertain and report upon the best modes of securing more intimate Inter- national and comniercfai relatioflR between the United States and the several coun- tries of Central and South America." Washington, D. C, Government Printing Of- fice, 1SH7. Verhandlung der mitteleuropUlsche Wirtschaftsconferenz (1912) in BrUsseL Lelpsig, 1912. III. Manuals and Trkatiks of Administrati\t3 Law, Etc. Amunfttegul y Rivera. Resumen de derecho admlnlstratlvo apllcado a la legislaciOn de Chile. Montevideo, 1900. XCOVOMICB. 69 Berthelemy, L. J. Traits elementalre da dr«tt mtfmlnistratlf. 5th ed. Paris, 1908. Camera di commercio e industrla di Lucca. Regime doganale e trattati di commercio. Bk^oBte t^ ^wiwrtoaari della comoiiaatoDe Ttale per fisidiiMla 19fl^l9\4. IJotetL, 1914. Docrocg, T. G. Cours de droit admlnlstratif. 7th ed. 7 vols. Paris, 1897-1905. Dues and port charges on shipping throu^MWt tbe world. 8 vols. New York, 1916. Goodnow, F. J. The principles of the administrative law of the United States, New York, 1905. Goal Viilalhi, P. Tratndo de derecho mercantll. Madrid. 1913. Kogaro B. & Oualld W. L*4TOlutlon du eommerce, dn credit et des transports depuis 150 ans. Paris, 1914. Orma. A. F. Derecho adBiiilstr»1]vo. 2d ed. 2 r. Bimbos Airot, 1914. Reinsch. P. S. Public international unions. Boston. 1905. Taaasig, P. W. The tariff in the United 8t«t«. New York. 1913. Thaller. Edmond Eugene. Traits 41«^mentaire de droit commercial. 5th ed. Paris, 1916. Vlfetows de Cartro, A. O. -^Rratado de sdencia ds admlatistxftcSo e dtreito sdministratlvo. Rio de Janeiro, 1906. CUSTOM- riOUftB REGULATIONS. Adnanas y puertos de ia RepQblica Arg<*Btlim. Ord^nanzas, leyes, reglamentos, decretos y dispOKlciones concordadas y coord inadan B&enos Airesr Mtaisterlo de Haeienda,. 1917, dispOKlciones concordadas y coordinadas. Por Carlos Bazo y Alberto Soares. Bolivia. Ley orgftnica y reglamento general de aduanas de la Reptllica de Bolivia con un ap6ndice fue contMe loB tnitaowi de oomerdo coa otroB paifsefl. La Pu, Imp. La Fatriav 1901. BraeU, Consolldac&o das lels das alfandegas e mesas de rendas. Bio de Janeiro, Imprenta Naclbnal, 1894. €fh4lo. I^gisUcMn de adaasas. DiagwAtiomem Tlg^ntes anregladas. Pet WeDceehio Orellana Tllches. Santiago, Imprenfa Kacfonal, 1908. Suplementa primero, 1905. Colombia. CMlgo de aduanas de la repliblica de Colombia. Recopilacl6n. B<»^otft, 1899. Suple- mento, 1901. Suplemento a la compUacidn sobre aduanas publicada en el afio de 191». Begotft, MtDtsterto de Hadenda, 1917, CoBta Rioa. OOdlga Fiscal : Itbro primero. San Jos^, Impmita Nacional, 1915. Cuba. Qidenanzaa de adoanas con todas las disposiclones que se ha a dictado desde su promul- gact6n en 1901 basta la fecba. FTavana, Ramble y Souza, 1910. Dominican Republic^ Ley fiobre aduanas y pnertoa. £dici6n Ofleial. Santo I>omingo, Secretaria de Hacienda y Comercfo, 1910. Ecuador, 1^7 orgflnica de aduanas. Edlcldn oflclal arreglada de conformidad con las dlsposicionea d« artlculo 5* de >a Ley del 8 de novlemlJTe de 1913. Quito, Imprenta y Encuader- Dad6ii KadoiiaU 1^14. €htetfmata. OidSBttMW de adtMiKu CtaftfeaMla, Tipograffa TTad^nal, 1894. naiU. Loi gar lea douanea de la r^abllqne et tarifs y annexes. Port-au-Prince, Aug. A. Heroux^ 190CL Bondvnu. CompflacDn de las leyea de Hacienda. 1866-1903. p. 281. Tegucigalpa, Ministerio de raieicBda, 1902. Mea>too, OfdeMtnza gefleral de aduatMs anttrftiraas y frontertms de los EB. W. Mexfcanos expedida ea 12 de Junio de 1891. Noera edicl6n. Mtetce, Tipografla de la Oflcina Impresora del Timbre, PaTacIo Nadonal, 1899. Castoms tariff of Mexico. Customs regulations. (E^xtracts from Ordenanza general de aduanas marftimas y fronterizas. Waahiagtott, I>. C, Qovt. Printing Office, 1910. 70 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. Qrdenansas generales de advanas y pnertoa. Expedldas el 15 de noylembre de 1886 y reformas haata 1904. Managua, TlpografTa Nacional, 1906. Paroffuav* Leyes y decretos de aduana. Asuncion, Talleres Nacionales de H. Kraua, 1898. Peru, Reglamento de comercio y adnazias del Perd. Idma, Imprenta Americana, 1911. Salvador, Codlflcaddn de las leyes de Hacienda. Secddn qulnta. p. 45. - San Salvador, Minlsterlo de Hacienda, 1898. UrugiMv, Cddlgo de adnanag por Pablo V. Goyena. Monteyldeo, Tlpograf fa Goyena, 1894. VenemtelOk Cddigo de Hacienda sanclonado por el Congreso de loa BE. UU. de Venesnela. Bdid^ii oflciai. Caracas, Tipografla del Comercio, 1899. South America, Report on Trade and Tariffs in Brazil. Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Boliyia, and Pern. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1916. DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN COMMERCIAL POLICIES. By Simon Lithan, Profeesor of Economies, University of Illinois, The purpose of the courses on " Domestic and foreign commercial policies " should be: 1. To bring out clearly the relationship between the public and the private aspects of business. 2. To determine the aims and the limitations of governmental trade-shaping activities. 8. To consider the methods and agencies used by the State and by otber public authorities in order to control and to promote commerce. 4. To give students a comprehensive understanding as to what business men must do or refrain from doing in order to conform to governmental require- ments at home and abroad, as well as to familiarize them with the functions and the work of those Institutions from which merchants may obtain guidance and assistance in the pursuit of their legitimate business enterprises. The course on domestic commercial policies should begin with an analysis of domestic trade and with a discussion of its various forms (wholesale, retail, mall order, etc.) in so far as these give rise to and are affected by legislative enactments, Judicial decisions, and administrative acts. The Instructor, keep- ing in mind that emphasis must be laid on policies and not on technical details, should then review the measures which have been passed for the purpose of insuring the free play of competition and of preventing unfair methods and frauds. Some of the topics to be discussed are these: The regulation of markets, of stock and produce exchanges, of warehouses and elevators ; classiii- catlon of grain and of cotton Into grades ; the crop-reporting system ; provisions regarding standard weights and measures; pure food and drug legislation; protection of patents and trade-marks; antitrust legislation; decisions regard- ing price maintenance, use of trading stamps, misleading advertising; false statement laws; bulk sales laws; the bankruptcy act. The concluding part of the course should consider chambers of commerce and similar nontradlng as- sociations of merchants as well as various governmental bureaus, departments, and commissions dealing with domestic trade. ECONOMICS. 71 It is desirable to have two courses on foreign commercial policies. In the first course the nature, the significance, and the essential characteristics of foreign commerce as distinct from domestic trade should be brought out. The I subject matter may then be presented in the following sequ^ice : (a) Tariff as one of the most important manifestations of a country's com- mercial policy; changes in theories and in policies (mercantilists, physiocrats, classical and national schools of political economy) ; balance of trade versus fiscal balance; arguments for free trade and for protection (economic, social, political, military) ; protection of agriculture, of manufactures; different kinds of customs duties; import, export, specific, ad valorem, countervailing, etc.; incidence of taxation by means of customs duties; bounties; prohibitions of imports and of exi)orts; the making of the tariff; tariff commission; tariff systems — autonomous, general and conventional, general and preferential, maxi- mum and minimum; commercial treaties — ^their nature and scope; European and American interpretation of the most-favored-nation clause; dumping. (b) Navigation policies; the merchant-marine question; regulation of ship- building and of shipping; shipping subsidies; discriminating duties on vessels and their cargoes; trafiSc agreements of ocean carriers; Government owner- ship of ships; improvements of rivers and of harbors; control of terminal facilities ; port charges ; taxation of shipping. ic) Trade-promoting activities and institutions in foreign countries and in the United States; consular service; duties and functions of consuls, of com- mercial attaches, of trade commissioners ; legislative committees and executive departments and bureaus devoted to the furthering of foreign commerce; the organization and the activities of the Department of Commerce; cooperation for the development of foreign trade; Federal Reserve Law and trade con- nections ; branch banks in foreign countries. id) Regulations affecting commercial travelers, samples, trade-marks, credit, and collections. The second course should be historical in character and should consider changes in the commercial policies of the United States and of the leading foreign nations. Study should also be made of the after-war commercial prob- lems and of the ways to solve them. If no separate course is offered on customs administration, additional topics to be treated are the work of the custom- house, bonded warehouses, drawbacks, etc. A half-year semester, three hours a week, should be spent on each course. The time for giving those courses would depend upon correlation with other parts of the curriculum ; however, under no circumstances does it seem advis- able to give them before the junior year. The course on domestic commercial policies should precede and should be regarded as a prerequisite for the first course on foreign commercial policies. If the subjects are taught in the junior year, the second course on foreign commerce may be given either concurrently or In the senior year. The students undertaking this work should be well versed in principles of economics and have a knowledge of economic geography and of economic hlstoiy. A careful coordination of these courses with those on commercial law, on fiscal legislation, and on business organization and operation is highly desirable in order to avoid unnecessary duplications^ The courses may undergo contraction or expansion in the presentation of certain parts, dependent on the fact as to what additional courses are offered on .such topics as diplomatic and consular service, customs legislation and ad- ministration, ocean transportation, credit and collections, and exporting and im- porting. • m 72 TRAINING FOE FOBEIQK SERVICE. Students stho]iIr1 be-fe(iiiire«l to-cescl tbe- current Utcratme on file solsjeet; re- Biortti, Uulietliii^, perLodi^uin iusucid by th» Govermnent as well as by tmde organizations axMl asaoeiataaas^ There is no single volume whicli can be naed aa at test for the outlined course on clonieHtie commercial policies. The subject may be covered by referring the Htudent» to vrs on Inspection of grain> Government regulatioD of speculatton, <*to. Calvert, T. H. Ri^uolatlon of commerce. Northp«rt, K. I., K Thompson Co., 1907. Chnptcrs ni, V, XII, and XIII. Davl^s. J. E. Tntst laws and unfiilr competldoa. Wafiblngton. Blir^au of Corporations^ 1915. Duncan, C. S. Marketing. New York, D. Appleton ft Co., 1921. 300 p. Chapters, 9. 17, 22. Frpund. K. Standi rcTs of American legislation. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1«17.. Cbaptw HI. Gorstenberg, C. W. Th<' law of bankruptcy. New York, 1917. Hagerty, J. R. Jferoantlle credit. New York, FT. Rblt & Co.. W13. Chapters XV-XXT. Hurley, B. N. Awakening of business. New York, Doubleday, Page & Co., 1916. Iluebner, G. C. Agricultural commerce. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 191.5. 406 p. Chapters VII, XIII, XlV. Jenks. .1. W. MnsInesH and the Government. New York» Aiexrinder Hamilton Institute, 1917. ChapfterR I-IX. Kir.qchhaum, S. Business organization and fldntslBtrBtioB: New Tork, I^niversacl Baal« noss Institute, 1910. Chapters XX, XXI. Nlms. H. D. The law of unfnlr bu$dnes<< competition. New York, Baker,. VootWs So Co.. 1909. Nystrom, P. N. The economics of retailing. New York, Ronald Press Co., 1915. Chap- ter XIX. Rogers. E. S. Good will, trade marks and unfair trading. Chicago, A. W. Shaw Co^, 1914. J»8- p. Stevens. W. II. S. Unfair oompetltion. Chicago, Univ. of Chlmgo Projw. 1917. 265 p. Stunre.«?s. R. American chambers of commerce. New York, Moffat, Yard & Co., 1915. 278 p. Weld. L. D. n. The marketing of farm products. New York. ftfeicmUlan Co*, 1916. 4R3 p. Chapter XX I. (ft) Foreign C^ommerMal Policiett. AYxnltag^-Smltli. G. The frw tradft movement and its results. Ciondbn, 1898: Tth ed., 1912. Ashlpy. P. Moslem tartlf lilstbry. New York. fi. P. Dutton & Co.. 1912. 448 p. Ashley. W. J. The tariff problem. London, P. 8; King ft Son. 1911. BaHtablo. C. F. The thf*ory of international trade. New York, Macmlllan Co., I90S. The commerce of nations. 7th ed. London, Methuen & Co., ltd!, 1916. Benn, E. J. P. IVade as a science. Lrf^iidon, Jm-rolds PublisbiDf^ Co., 1916. Business Training Corporation. Course in foreign trade. New York, 1916. Vol. X, Ed«r;.E. J.: Fon^fgo and boaie law. Vol. XI, Stem, C. W. : Impertliipr. Vol. XII. Snow, C. S. : Factors In trade building. Chomley. C. H. Protection In Canada and Australia. Ix)ndon, P. S. King Ar Son, 1904. Commercial laws of the world. Boston, Boston Book Co., 1911. Twenty-thive volumes have been issued to date. Onlbertson, W. S. Commercial policy In war time and after. New York, T>. Appleton & Co.. 191,0. 47S p. I>«WRon. W. n. Protection In Germany. London. P. S. King & Son, 1901. 259 p. Dunmore, W. B. Ship subsidies. Boston* Houghton lilifflln Co., 1907: Fflsingcr, E. B. Fxporting to Latin America. New York, D. Api>]eton & Co., 1916, Chapters XXTTT-XXVT. risk. (4. M. Infornatlonal commercial policies. New Y^k, MacmlUan Co.. 1907. Friedman. E. N. International commerce and' reconstruction. New York, E. P. Dutton & Co.. 1020. 4.S2 n. Fuchs. C. J. The trau(> policy of Great Britain and h<»r colonies since 1860. London, lOOn. GrunaeL J. Economic protectionism. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1916. Hans, .T. A. de. Foreign trade and shipping. New York, Ah-xander Hamilton Institute, 1919. Chapters 2. 4. 10. Johnson. R. R. and others. History of domestic and Ipreigp commerce of the United- States. Washington, Carnegie Institution of WasWngton, 1915. Especially vol, 2, part III. ' Ocean and inland water transportation. New York, D. Appleton ft Co., 1906. ECONOMICS. 73 j£idd, H. C Foreign trade. New York, Prentice Hall, 1921. 441 p. Cbapters 23 and 24. National Foreign Trade Convention. Proceedings. New York, National Foreign Trade Council. 1914-1921. Notz, W. P., and Harvey, R. S. American foreign trade, as promoted by the Webb- I'omerene and Kduo Acta. IndiaDapoiis. Ind., Bobbs-Mcrrill ('o., 1921. 593 p. L&ugrhlin, J. !#., and Willis, H. P. Beciproclty. New York, Baker & Taylor Co., 1908. Meeker, Royal. History of shipping subsidies. New York, 1905. American Economic Association. Publications, 3rd series, VI, no. 3, 1905. Meredith, H. O. Protection in France. London, P. S. King & Son, 1904. 202 p. Meili, F. International civil and commercial law. Part III. New York, MacmiUan Co.. 1905. Owen, D. Ocean trade and shipping. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons. 277 p. Pierce, F. The tariff and the trusts. New York, Macmillan Co., 1909. Rabbeno. U. The American commercial policy. London, 1895. Singer, B. Patent and trade mark laws of the world. New York, Bender & Company. ^ 1913. 685 p. Smart, W. The return to protection. New York, Macmillan Co., 1904. Stan^rood. E. American tariff controversies in the nineteenth century. 2 vols. Boston. Houghton Mifain Co.. 1903. Taussig. F. W. Tariff history of the United States. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1914. 465 p. Tbe international trade situation. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Bodal Science, March, 1921. 227 p. Some aspects of the tariff question. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press. 1915. 374 p. United States Tariff Commission. Reciprocity and commercial treaties. Washington, D. C^ 1919. Wolfe, A. J. Theory and practice of international commerce. New York, International Book Pub. Co^ 1920, 548 p. Chapters 18, 19, 20. Sammermann, E. w. Foreign trade and shipping. New York, Alexander Hamilton In- stitute, 1917. 356 p. Part 1, Chapters IV, V, VII ; Part 2. Chapters VIII, IX. PART II. GOVERNMENT. THE CONSULAR SERVICE. By Eael Willis Cbecbatt, Professor of PolUieal Science and Economica, Municipal University of Akron, Ohio. The examinations which are given by the State Department to applicants for positions In consular service Include the following subjects: I. International, maritime, and commercial law. II. Political and commercial geography. III. Arithmetic. IV. Modern languages. V. Natural, industrial, and commercial resources and commerce of the United States. VI. Political economy. VII. American history, Government and institutions. VIII. Modem history (since 1860) of Europe, South America, and the Far East. It wUl be seen from this that no single course of lectures which a school might offer will cover thoroughly all these different subjects. Each subject in the above list is more or less a special subject In itself. The faculty of a large school of commerce is composed of specialists in each of these lines. There- fore the student who would prepare for the consular service would find it neces- sary to take a number of courses under different instructors instead of expect- ing to find one course answering for all. A student who wishes to prepare for the consular service should enter a school of commerce or department of economics and pursue studies in those courses which most nearly fit the prescribed subjects which are made the basis for the entrance examinations at Washington. In meeting the requirements In international law, several universities offer courses on the principles of international law and an advanced course In treaties and the treaty-making power. In addition to these courses, there are two courses of one semester each which bear directly on the organization of the consular and diplomatic service and the rights and duties of diplomatic and consular representatives in the protection of citizens and property abroad. Mr. Wilbur J. Carr, the Director of the Consular Service, has perhaps cor- rectly stated the true situation relative to the inadvisabillty of any university expending a large amount in establishing a school for the consular and diplo- matic service. In discussing this subject at the Conference on Training for Foreign Service, held at Washington, December 31, 1915, Mr. Carr said : I think It may well justify serious consideration as to how many courses you can maintain In your universities — that is, courses additional to the regular courses in the university—for preparation for this particular work ; but there Is a way in which I think our need can be met, and very much greater needs be met, by taking advantage of and meeting the condition which is confronting tis now with reference to the training of men for foreign service in connection with our expjort trade, due to increased business with other countries through private enterprise. So far as I know, the eligible men for that kind of work are very few, and in this connection the educational institutions of this country are confronted with a problem which they will have to meet. From what I 75 82186'— 22 6 76 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. have seen of the \Cork at Harvard and In the school of commerce uf New* York University, it seems to me that it would be perfectly possible to combine a course of training for the American Consular Service with a course of training for service in ex])ort trade, and have sufficient demand for those courses to enable them to be maintained, or at least, a reasonable part of them. I am convinced that the university training you would give a man who Is to be an export manajrer or an international banker, or who is even to be a salesman abroad, is essentially that which would meet the requirements of the Consular Service. I do not see why it would not furnish the foundation fepartment of State has attached much weight to tiiese subjects in the entrance exii ml nations. One very Important feature In addition to the preceding could be introduced into the university course of training. This would be the inauguration of a sj^em of having consuls who return to this country on leave lecture before daases which have students enrolled in preparation for the foreign, service. This would place before students and the regular Instructors of the university fir«;t hand information in regard to the commercial opportunities where the ODAsuls are located abroad. This would be in line with the plan offered by the Katfonal Foreign Trade CouDCil r^atlve to recommending that consuls returning on leave to this country appear at business conferences and con- ventiotts for the purpose of acqaainttng these bodies with business oppor- tunities abroad. Officials of the State De^rtm^it have recommended that funds be provided to enable consuls to attend such conventions. The writer of this article desires to express the hope that, as this practice becomes perfected, returning consuls will visit educational institutions where conveniently located, and address daases of young men who are preparing for foreign service. This practice would be a great incentive to the work of the lecture room. If diambers of conmierce are to secure tiie sen-ices of our consuls when they return for a tempomry visit, there, seems to be no valid reason why they should not be provided with the funds to enable them to appear in the more important and centrally located schools of commerce where men are preiMirlng to enter the ideatlcal kind of work In which they themselves are engaged. RBPETRBNCES. OiMMular Service of the United Btatea. Beile. T. H. CftB^B on conflict of laws. Cambridge, Mass.. Harvard University Press, 1916. 189 p. Borchard, E. M. The diplomatic protection of citlsens abroad. New Tork, Banks Law Pnbllshinf? Co., 1916. 988 p. Celnmbia University. Academy of Political Sciences. Conference on foreign relations. Craodall, S. B. Treaties, their making and enforcement. Washington, l>. C, John Byrne & Co. 1916. 663 p. Poster, J. W. The practice of diplomacy. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co.. 1906. Jones, C. L. The oonsalar servl-ee of the United States. N-ew York, D. Appleton & Co., 1906. Moore. J. B. Wgest of international law. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office. 1906. 8 vols. — Principle* of American diplomacy. Now York, Harper Bros., 1918. 477 p. Stove]], Eliery C. Consnlar caaes and opinions from the decisions of the £}ngllsb and American courts and the opinions of the Attorney General. Washington, D. C, John Brrne & Co., 1969. United States. Bureau of Education. The conf«^ence on training for foreign service. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office^ 1917. (Bulletin, 1917, no. 37.) -'-— — Department of State. Consular regulations and instructions. Washington, D. C» Government Printing OlBce, "■■ - Tnnitlev of the United States. Van Dyne, Frederick. Our foreign service : the A B C of American diplomacy. Bochester, N. Y., lA^ers* Cooperative Pub. Co., 1909. CIVICS. Immigration and Cltlaseasliip — Social Lejifislatioii. By Hattie Plvm Williams, Associate Professor of Practical Sociology, University of Nebraska. I. Immigration and citizenship. — It scarcely seems necessary to suggest that a knowledge of the composition and movement of the population of a country is 78 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. fundamental for those engaged in foreign service of any kind. Upon the degree of mobility of the population within the country will depend very largely the desire for new goods and the facilities for distributing them, while its move- ment in and out of the country will provide opportunities for commercial Inter- course and necessitate diplomatic relations. Students of immigration who regret the overemphasis of the economic factor in this problem nevertheless recognize that economic opportunities are the greatest force in modem times in drawing people into foreign lands, and that trade currents can follow migration grooves as naturally as thf^y follow the flag. No one has yet studied immigration as a world phenomenon. It is still thought of in provincial terms as a problem pecu- liar to the United States, and not as one with which every country struggles more or less. The supply of and demand for inhabitants is a basic fact not only in the move- ment of population but also in the development of markets and especially in the future political relations of the countries of the world. In the Far E^st a thorough and sympathetic understanding of the problems arising out of the pressure of population, and constructive cooperation with those countries in formulating a program of relief, will go far toward averting a clash of interests between East and West. In Russia and the South American States, where unde- veloped resources wait upon an increase in population, the problem is the reverse, but no less momentous for the peace and prosperity of the world. No less important is a recognition of the various racial groups which make up the political unit or State. Everywhere abroad, where assimilation is less complete and considered less essential than in the United States, foreigii groups are zealous for the recognition of racial distinctions. One can readily imagine the loss of good will which might follow the refusal to take note of this race prejudice and to classify properly various racial groups. Keeping in mind the purpose of the course outlineepen«!ent — Uneniployetl, homeless children. Defective — Feeble-minded and insane, deaf, blind, crippled. Delinquent — Juvenile delinquency, adult crime. The work outlined above must be conducted as let'ture courses for the simple reason that there are no texts which adequately cover the material. Partic- ularly for the latter are sources so greatly scattered that a satisfactory bib- liography is not possible in the short space available. Since a large fund of knowledge is helpful to a proper appre<'iati()n of these subjects, they should not he given before the second half of the third year. REFERENCES. Amf^rican Labor Lesislntion Review. Vols. 1-7. New York, 1910-17. Brii^gs, John R. History of Rorial leKinlation In Iowa. Iowa City, State Historical Society. 1{>14. G5 p. Commons. J. R.. and Andfew«, J. B. Prtndples of labor leRislatlon. New York, Harper Bro8., 1916. 524 p. GoldKmith, Peter H. A brlof bibliography of bookfl In English, Spanish, and Portuguese relating to the republics commonly called Latin America. Ncrw York, Macmillan Co., 1915. 107 p. Jenks. Jeremiah. (Tovernmental action for social welfare. New York. Macmillan Co., 1010. 1>2« p. Kellv, Florence. Some ethical gains through leglnlntion. New York. 190.*). Mangold, O. B. Pn>biem« of child welfare. New York, Macmillan Co., 1914. 522 p. Ross. E. A. South of Panama. New York, Century Co., 1015. 390 p. Hmitn, Hamtiel. Social pathology. New York. Macmillan Co., 1911. 380 p. United States. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Cenauft. Summary of 9tate laws relating to dependent classes. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1918. Department of Labor. Children's Bureau. Child-labor legislation in the United Statea. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Ofllce, 1915. (IndustrlAl series no. 1.) Wolfe, Albert. Readings in social problems. Boston, Ginn & Co., 1916. 804 p. INTERNATIONAL LAW. By Geobge G. Wllson, Professor of International Law, Harvard University, The minimum requirements should be : 1. International law, the equlTalent of three hours a week in class for one year. 2. International relations, coveiing diplomatic and other policies, three hours per week in class for one year. Whenever possible the above studies should receive attention to a total amount of 18 hours, or the equivalent of 6 hours a week for 3 years. The emphasis upon different asi)ects should be varied according to the special lino of work which the student is planningr to enter. These studies are best adapted for students of junior and senior prade who have had previous training in history and political science and for graduate students. The following references may serve as a convenient starting point for stu- dents desiring to study along general lines: REFERENCES. Bonflls. H. Manuel de Le droit international public, 1912. 6th ed. (Fauchllle.) Paris, A. RouSHcuu, 1912. Borchard, E. M. Diplomatic protection of citizens abroad. New York, Banka Law Pub- llshiUK Co., 1915. 988 p. Butler, C. H. Treaty-making power of the United States. 2 vola. New York, Banks Law Publishing Co., 1902. Calvo, Carlos. Le droit international tb^oriqae et pratique. 5^ ed. 6 vols. Paris, A. Rousseau, 1800. GOVBBKMENT. 81 Cobb^tt, Pitt. Leitdini; eaees and opiolODi) on international law, and variotiB points of British law connoctod therewith . . . with notes. 3d ed. 2 vols. CrMidall. S. B. Treaties, their mnlctng and enforcement 2d ed. Ix>ndon, Stevens & llayncs, 1909-1913. Wa.';hlngtcn. 1>. C John r.yrne & Co., 1910. 663 p. Erans. h. B. Leadiujj cases on international law. Chicago, Caliagban & Co., 1917. 477 p. Grotius, H. Ds Jure belli ate nacis. 3 vols. (Whewell.) Washington, Carnegie Instl- tate. 1913. IlalU William Edward. A tr(\*itise on international law. {7th ed. by A. P. Higgins.) New Torlf, Oxford University Press, 1910. 768 p. Halleck. U. W. Elements of iDtematlonal law. 4th ed. New Yorlt, BJ. P. Dntton & Co., 1914. 673 p. 't, A. B. The Mo«Droe doclrlae; an Interpretation. Bo«toQ, Little, Brown & Co., 1016. 445 p. Hartslet, E. Map of Europe by treaty. 5 vols. 1875. London. Butterworth, 1875-91. •hev, A. 8. Efl ' " 558 p. ^fisentiale of international public law. New York, Macmillau Co., 1912. Htirj?lnR, A. P. The Hague peace conference. New York. G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1909. «32 p. Kent. J. Commentaries on American law. 14th ed. Bo.«5ton. Little. Brown & Co., 1S94. Lawrence, T. J. Principles of international law. 4th ed. Bo*Io«re, J. B. A treatise on esctradltlon and Interstate rendition. 2 vols. Boston, Bos- ton Book Co., 1891. Hlstni-y and digest of international arbitration to which the United States has beeo a party. 6 volsi. Waabington, D. C, Supt. of Docs., 1896. International law digest. 8 vols. Washington, D. C, Supt. of Docs., 1006. ► Principles of American diplomacy. New York, Harper Bros., 190S. Nys. E. Le droit International. 3 vols. Bruxeiles, M. Weissonbruoh, 1912. <^penheJm, L. International law. 2 vols. 2d ed. New York. Longmans, Green ft Co., 1912. Perels, P. Das Internationale Slfentliche Seerecht der Gegenwart. 1903. Pblllimore, B. International law, 3d ed. Ivoudon. Butterworths, 1879-1889. Phillipson. C. Termination of war, and treaties of peace. New York, E. P. Dutton ft iipson, u. xermir Co.. me. 486 _p lier-Fod4r6, P. Ti Pradier-Fod4r6, P. Traits de droit l&ternatloiial public Surop^en et Am^rlealn. 8 vols. 1885. 8a tow. B. Gaide to diplomatic practice. New York, Longmans, Green ft Co., 1917. 405 p. PScott, .Tames Brown. Cases on International law, selected from decisions of English and American courts. Bt. Paul, Minn., West Pub. Co., 1902. Hague court nports. Washington. D. C, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. 1916. 664 p. Texts of the peace conferences at The Hague (1899, 1907). 2 vols. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins press, 1909. Snow. F. American diplomacy. 1894. Spnight. J. M. War rights on land. New York, Macmillan Co., 1911. 520 p. Stockton, Cbarles H. OntHnee of international law. New York, Charles Scrtbner's Sons. 1914. 616 p. Stowell, Ellery, and Munro. Henry F. International cases, urtiltratlon and incidents illaetrative of International law as practiced by independent States. Boston, Hoagb- ton Mifflin Co.. 1916. 662 p. Tskahasbi, S. Cases on international law, Chlno- Japanese War. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard Unl7. Press., 1899. International law applied to the Russo-Japanese War. New York, Banks Law Pub. Co., 1908. Taylor. Rf. International public law. Chicago, Callaghan & Co., 1911. Treaties and oonventlods between the United States and other powers (1776-1912) 1913. Ullman, G. VSIkerrecht. Ttiblngen, J. B. Mohr. ▼atfel. Emmerich. I^w of nations. (Ingraham trans.) Philadelphia, T. J. W. John- son. 187G. Walker. T# A» History of the law of nations. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons. Sctenee of international law. 1892. Westlake, Zw Collected papers on public International law. New York, O. P. Putnam's 9on.9. 3915. 708 p. Interna tional law, 2 toIb. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1910. Wheaton. H. Elements of international law. (R. H. Dana.) New York, Baker, Voorhls ft Co., 1916. 901 p. Wilson, G. Q. Hague arbitration cases. Boston, Ginn ft Co., 1915. 525 p. iTitemationnl law. St. Pan!, Minn., West Pub. Co.. 1910. «23 p. and Tucker, G. P. International law. 7th ed. Boston, Silver, Burdett ft Co., 1917. 505 p. Wbolsey, T. D. rntematlonal law. 6th ed. New York, Charles Scrlbner's Sons, 1891, COMMERCIAL AND MARITIME LAW. By L. Russell Alden, AsaiBtawt Professor of History, George WasMnffUyn UniversUy, Commercial law, fn one form or another, governs almost all of man's actlrl- tfes on this globe, and when they are pursued on the three-fourths of the earth that Is sea, they are controlled in their maritime aspects by the mniitlme or admiralty law In addition. Is It not tmlversally true, then, that all men, 82 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. because they are directly concerned, ought to know the general principles of this law? Success in business, moreover, is conditioned on the establishment of mutual respect and confidence between contractors, and the stranger the contractors are to each other the more imi)erative it is that each party overcome the other's possible suspicion by as rigid a respect for the rights of that other as his insistence upon his own rights is vigorous. Is it not equally true, then, that ignorance of the laws governing trade must hamper him who would trade with those of his own nationality and language and, In increasing degree, him who would trade with foreigners to his land, his speech, and his native view* point, customs, and peculiarities? Every man, and especially he who would engage successfully in foreign trade, should know the legal effect of his acts and conduct his business with full knowledge of what he is doing when he incurs obligations or acquires rights. Commercial law is a name loosely given to 4hose branches of the law which govern everyday transactions in business, such as the making of contracts, the use of negotiable paper, the formation of business associations, etc. One would think that a workinj? knowledge of such branches of the law would be common, at least among so-called " business men," if not among the people at large, and yet every lawyer in active practice has had driven home to him again and again the appalling ignorance of otherwise wide-awake and well-Informed business men as to the legal effects of entering into a partnership, for example, or of indorsing the check of an out-of-to\^Ti visitor in order to accommodate him by enabling him to cash it at the host's bank, of responding by letter to an offer of co;itract made by telegram, of surrendering a deed in exchange for purchase money paid by uncertified check, of depositing trust funds committed to his care to the credit of his personal account in the bank, or of many other common acts too numerous to mention. Far more than pessimists could be driven to admit or optimists would claim, the great majority of men and women are fairly honest, considerate, and accommodating In their dealings with each other. Were It not so, our courts would be overwhelmed with trivial disputes over questions highly dilRcult of decision, and every man would have to be a lawyer, whether he would or not, or else speedily contribute another example to the doctrine of the survival of the fittest. As it is, the calendars of our courts are congested with preventable litigation, and thousands of dollars and unmeasured assets in business confidence are daily squandered through popular ignorance of the most fundamental principles of commercial or business law. What do we advocate? Universal required instruction in business law in all high schools and colleges. Our problem here is particularly with colleges, where the treatment of the subjects taught should, of course, be more thorough than among the young pupils in the high schools and suited to the maturity of the students taught. This instruction, in the academic and scientific depart-* meiits of our universities, should not and can not be either a substitute for or a competitor with the more arduous and thorough training of the students in the law schools who intend to follow the law as a profession; nor can it be given the same number of hours as are allotted to the same subjects when taught in the law schools. But it should be allotted at least two hours a week for two full years, if it is expected to teach anything beyond contracts and negotiable paper, and particularly if the course Is designed not only for those who seek a general knowlet in modern times. (7) Austria-Hungary and the Near East (13) Russia and the Near East. (5) Northern Africa. (9) The Near East as a focus of international relations. Something should be said to bring out the salient facts concerning the great empires of antiquity whose seat was the Mesopotamian and Egyptian river valleys, a word about the Greek penetration under Alexander and his successors^ 82186°— 22 7 92 TRAINING FOR FOBEIGN SERVICE. and azM)lber concerning the inAuence of Rome. A brief study of the Byzantine civilization should be followed by a sufficiently clear exposition of Moham- medanism and its influence upon the peoples accepting it. There should be a more intensive investigation of Turkish institutions, the development of the Ottoman Empire and a most thorough study of the origins of the Armenians and Georgians, the Balkan peoples and the Balkan States. The connection of the European powers with the peoples of the Near East, iuYolTing some excur- sions into European diplomacy, should be patiently unfolded. Up to about 1700, Constantinople was the center of power; since then it has been the center of intri^e. Up to then, from the Bosporus had gone out the word of law eastward and westward, northward and southward. Since then, the radiat- ing lines point iouford the Bosporus fromr London, Paris, Vienna, Berlin, and Petroffj-ad. Tliese interests, economic as well as politlc^il, of each European State, including those of the Balkans, in any quarter of the Near East need to be set forth and amply explained to the full comprehension of all students. Under these topics should be considered tlie economic as well as the political conditions, the trade routes of Christian and Mohammedan, the resources, agri- cultural, mineral, etc., of various sections during each important period. Prob- ably the geographical factor would be taken up first, but it must also be referred to repeatedly as the trade conditions and product iyity of each section need to be noted. The diplomatic factor grows in strength as the course works down into the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. No course of this kind could be complete if it did not bring out the economic and political reasons why the Near East has been the hotbed of so many Elaropean wars. The history of the Near East and Africa can be covere, 823, ftSl. 787. Chekrezi. CoBAtaatine A. Albania, tast and present. New Yorlc, Macinlllan Co., 1919. Cheradamo, Andr^. The Pan-German plot uumaHked. New York, Chas. Bcrlbner's Sons. 1917. 2a5 p. • T1k» United States and Pan-Germania. New York, Chas. Srrlbn*>r's Rons, 1918. Chirol, Sir Valentine. Tbe Middle Eanteru ouestioo. New York. B. P. Dutton Co., 1904. • Germany and ** the fear of Bwala.'' New York, Oxford University Prefta, 1914. 20 p. Choublier, M. La question d'orient dipulB le traits de Berlin. Paris, 1897. CoolidK«^. A. C. claimants to Constantinople. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press. 1917. Creasy, Sir Edward S. Turkey. Philadelphia, John D. Morris & Co., 1907. Eevised and edited by Archibald Cary Coolidge, and W. Harold Claflin. 5.34 p. CviJIe. I. L'annexation de Bonnie et la question Serbe. Paris, Hachette et cle., 1909. Darovlcl, Nicholas. La question du Bospliore et dea Dardanelles. Geneve, (ieorf?. 1915. Bame, F. Ilistoiro de la Ruumnnlo cont'.^mporaine depuis Tav^ement des princes indi- genes jnsqn'a uos jours, 1822-2900. Paris, 1900. DebUlour. A. Olstolre diplomatique de I'Europe (1814-1878). 2 vols. Paris, Alcan, 1891. Degaignes. J. de. HUtoire 96n6rale des Huns. Turcs, Mongola et des autres peuples tartares oceidenteaox. 5 vols. ParlK. 175<^68. Dicey, Sir Edward. The peasant state ; Bulparia in 1894. London, Murray, 1894. Diehl, Charles. L'Afrique oyzantine : ^tndes byzantines an vl sltele. Parts, 1909. Byzance ; grandtur et decadence. Paris, 1920. 343 p, Mljrtolre de J 'Empire Byaantine. Paris, 1920. 247 p DJnvara, T. C. Cents projets de partages de la Turquie. Paris, Alcan, 1914. b'Oksstm, M. Tableau 06n^rai de Tfimpire Ottoman. (In FVeneb and ItaUan.) 3 vols. The Hague. 1787-92, 1820. DomiRian, ueon. The frontiers of language and nationality in Burope. New York, Holt & Co., 1917. 375 p. Dozy, R. Hirttoire des Masulnans d'Espagne, jusqn'H la conqudte de I'Andalousie par les Almoravldes. 4 vols. I>yden, 1861. Driault, Edouard. La qD(>8tion d'orient depnis ses origlnes jnaqn'^ la grajode gnerre. Paris. Alran, 1917. 7th ed. Dagfan, S. i*. II. Balkan diplomaey. In Political Reienee Qaarterly, 1907. Durham, M. E. High Albania. New York, Longmans, Green & Co., 194>9. Dvight, H. 6. Constantinople, old and new. New York, Charles Scribaer's Sons, lOlS. 567 p. Eliot. Hir Charles N. S. (p4ifseus, peend.) Iterkey in Biirope. New York, Longmans, Green ^ Co.. 1908. 459 p. fivans, A. J. Through Bo«nia and Herzegovina. London, Longmans, Oreen A Co<, 1876. Ferguson, William Scott. Oreek imperialism. Boston k New York, Houghton Mifllln Co., 1913. 268 p. yinlay, George. History of Greece. 7 vols. New Yoric, Oxford University Press. (Ox- ford, Clarendon Presa, 1877.) Frank. Tenney. Roman lmperiali$:m. New York, Macmlllan, 1914. 865 p. Forbes, KerilL and others. The Balkans. Oxford, (Clarendon Press, 1016. 407 p. Forster. C. T. Lettres de Oglcr Ghlslierl de Busbecq. London, BLegan, Paul & Co.. 1881. Fortesque. O. B. Ru5;8la, the Balkans, and the Dardanelles. New York, Brentano, 1916. 284 p. Gibbon. Edward. Decline and fall of the Roman Empire. Ed. in 7 vols, by J. B. Bnry, 1896. Latest edition, 1909 flf. New York. E. P. Ehitton Co., 1911. Gibbons, Herbert Adams. The foundation of the Ottonmn Empire. New York, Century Co., 1916. 379 p. The new map of Burope. New York, Century Co., 1914. 412 p. Grosvenor. B. A. Constantinople. 2 vols. London, 1895. Gaechoff, J. B. Le gea^ae de la guerre mondiale. Berne, 1919. Hall. H. R. The anci/>nt history of tho Near East. London, Macmlllan Co., 1913. 602 p. Hamilton. Angus. Problems of the Middle East. I^ndon, Nash, 1909. Hammer-PurgRtall, Joseph von. G«schichte dee Oamanischen Belches. 10 v. Budapest- Hartlebea. 1834-.16: Hartslet, E. Map of Europe by treaty. 5 vols. London, Butterworth, 1875, Hazen. C'harles I)., and othern. Three peace congresses of the nineteenth century. Cam- bridge, Mass.. Harvard University Press, 1917. Hertzberg, G. F. Geschichte der Byzantlner . . . Berlin, 1883. Beyd. W. von. Histoire de commerce du Levant au moyen-age. Lelpsic, F. Raymond. 18«5-lftS6. Hlldt John C. Early diplomatic negotiations of the United States with Russia. Balti- more, Johns Hopkins Press. 1906. Hogarth, D. G. M. A. The nearer East. New York, D. Appleton h Co., 1902. Holland. Thomas Rrskine. The Europ4>an concert in tbe Eastern question. A collection of treatli's and other public acts with an introduction and notes. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1885. New York, Oxford University Press. Hontsma, and ofhcm. Encyclopaedfii de I'lslam. Leipzig & Paris, Hnrrnssowltz & Oouthner. German, French, and English editions, 1904-1921. (23 fascicules issued.) HrusevskyJ, M. Gesch. d. ukrainlschen (ruthenischen) Volkes 1. Lelpsic, 1906. pp. 89 ff. (History of the nomad peoples in Russia.) Hughes. J. P. A dictionary of Islam. London, 1895. Hnhn, Major A. von. D*»r Kampf der Bulgaren um ihre National einhelt. Leipzig. 1886. Eng. trans. : The struggle of the Bulgarians for national independence. London, _ J. Mnrray, 18»6. Huntington, E. The pulse of Asia. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1907. d6 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. gronnd, with reference to the dev^opment of the political, economic, social, ead religious ideas of the people, is presented. Then, in connection with the Euro- pean possewsions in the Far Bast — India, Indo-Chimi, Netherlands India, Si- beria— a careful study is made of the way in which the conquest or occupation was effected. This calls for a special study of the rise of the British Empire in India. In dealing with the independent states of China, Japan, and Siam, the emphasis is placed upon tlie events since the establishment of treaty refai- tiong and open commerce w^lth those nations, in the middle of the nineteenth century. As the discussion advances into the more modern period, the considera- tion becomes more detailed. Special emphasis is laid upon the development of foreign rights under successive treaties, and upon the growth of foreign trade. The course will need a certain amount of readjustment every year in order to allow for a consideration of the most recent events, such as, for example, the Sino-Japanese negotiations, the Far East in the World War, the Lansing-Ishii notes, and the Washington conference. Such a course should be offered primarily for upper classmen. The student will profit most from it who has taken courses in European and American his- tory and can correlate events in east and west A study of unfamiliar peoples, customs, and institutions, calls for a certain maturity of judgment which a freshman rarely enjoys. As a preparation for foreign service, it should be taken as near the close of the college course and the beginning of overseas employment as possible. A course, as outlined, should be allowed at least three hours a week for two semesters, or five hours a week for two quarters. If it is desirable to confine the consideration to eastern Asia alone* omitting India, Malaya, and the East Indies ; then one semester or one quarter would sufiice. But if thought is given to tlie vastness of the area to be covered, the many States and peoples, the two great civilizations w^ith which the average student has had no contact whatever* and the potential importance of eastern Asia in the future, then aa much time will be given to this subject as to any of the major courses in history offered by the institution. In the case of Australasia, a two-hour course for a semester, or three hours for a quarter, would suffice. This would give time for a study of the history of the two regions, and for a study of the political, economic, and social life o£ tlie i)eople to-day. REFERENCES. Thb Var £Ust. Texts, Barrows, D. P. A history of the PhlUpplne Islands. Tonkers, N. Y., World Book (>>., 1914. 834 p. Brink ley, P. A history of the JapaJi*'«e people from the earliest times to the end of the Meiji era, with the collaboration jot Baron Kiknchi. New York, BDcydopedia Brittanica Co., 1915. 7S4 p. Dmi^'las, R. K. Europo and tlip Par Bast. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1904. Foster, J. W. American diplomacy in the Orient. Boston and New York, Houghtoa Mifflin Co., 1003. Frazer, R. W. British rulo in India. 4th ed. London, 1»08. New York, Q. P. Pnt- nam'H Sons. Hnnter. W. W. A brlpf history of the Indian peoples. 23d ed. Oxford, 1903. Keller. A. (i. Colonization ; a study of the founding of new societies. Boston, Ginm ft Co., 1908. Lvall, A. C. Tlie rise of the British dominion in India. New York. 189a. Alurray, D. .Tapan. 6th od. New York. G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1906. Pott, F. L. II. Sketch of Chinese history. 3d cd. New York. Domestic and Porelgn Missionary Society of the Protests nt l^^iscopal Church, 1915. Smith. V. A. The Oxford history of India, from the earliest times to the end of 1911. Oxford, The Clarendon I'ress, 1919. 816 p. Reference Works. Ball, .T. D. Tilings Clilnene; or, notes connected witli Cblsa. 4th ed. rev. and enl. New York, Charles Scrlbner's SSona, 1904. GOVERITMEKT. 97 BMfafeHU J. W. Chlaa ; an interpretation. New York, AJblngdon Press, 1916. 620 p. Bland, J. O. P., and Backhouse, B. China under the Empress dowager, being the life and times of Tzu Hsi. London. 1914. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co.. 1914. 322 p. Bonlger, D. C. de K. A short history of China. London and New York, 1900. Caijaton, A. Java, Sumatra, and the other islands of the Dutch East Jndies. Lon- don, 1911. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1911. Campbell. J. O. D. Siam in the twentieth century. London, EL Arnold, 1902. Cbambeiiain. B. H. Things Japanese. 4th. ed., rey. and enl. LondoB, J. Murray Co. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1902. Chesney, G. T. Indiaa polity. 3d ed. London and New York, Loagnans, Qreen & Co., 1894. The China Yearbook. Jx)ndon and New York, E. P. Dutton & Co., 1912. Clement, E. W. A handbook of modem Japan. Chicago, A. C. McClurg & Co., 1913. Danrers, F. C. The Portuguese in India. London, 1894. Daotremer, J. Burma under British rule. Tr. by Sir George Bcott. London and New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1913. 301 p. Bay, C. The policy and administration of the Dutch in Java. New Y<^k, Macmfllan Co., 1904. Dubois, J. A. Hindu manners, customs, and ceremonies. Tr. and ed. by Henry K. Beauchamp. 3d ed. New York. Oxford University Press, 1906. Elliott, C. B. The PhilipDines to tne end of the commission government; a study in tropical democracy. Indianapolis, Bobbe-Merrill Co. [clflT.J The Philippines to the end of the military regime. Indianapolis, Bobbs-MerrlU Co. Ccl916.] Puller, B. (i. e., J. B.) The empire of India. Boston, Little, Brown ft Co., 1913. 393 p. Giles, H. A. The civilization of China. New York, Henrv Holt & Co., 1911. 266 p. Griias, W. Ew The Mikado's empire. 12th ed. New York, Harper Bros., 1913. 754 p. Gundry, R. S. China and her neli;hbors. London, 1898. Herbeftson, A. J., and Howarth, O. J., eds, Oxford survey of the British Empire. New York, Oxford University Press, 1914. Holdemess, T. W. People and problems of India. New York, H. Holt & Co., 1912. 256 p. Hornbeck, S. K. Contemporary politics in the E^r East New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1916. 466 p. Hunter, W. tT. A history of British India. London and New York, Longmans, Green and Co., 1899-1900. 2 v. Imperial gazetteer of India. New ed. New York, Oxford University Press, 1907-09. 26 V. The Japan Yearbook. Tokyo, 1906. Keane. A. H. Asia. London, E. Stanford, 1869-1906. Philadelphia, J. B. Llpplncott SrsBftse, A. S. * Russia in Asia; a record and a study, 1566-1899. London and New York 1899. La Mazeli^re, A. B. Le Japon, histoire et cirllisation. Parjts, 1907-1913. 6 ▼. Lannoy, C. de. and Linden, H. van der. Hi&toire de Texpansion colonlale des peuples Burop^ns. BnixeJles, 1907-1011. 2 v. Lstonrette. K. R. The developffleat of China. Boston & New York, Houghton Mifflin Co^ 1917. 273 p. The development of Japan. New York. Macmfllan Co., 1918. 237 p. Le Boy, J. A. The Americans in the Philippine^. Boston and New Yctk, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1914. 2 y. Leroy-Beanliea, P. (i. e., P. P.) De la colonisation chez les peuples modemes. 6th ed. Paris 1908. Longford,* J. H.* Story of Korea. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1911. Story of old Japan. 2d ed. New York, Longmans. Green & Co.. 1910. Lucas. C. P. HiRtoricaf geography of the British colonies. 7 v. Oxford, Clarendon Press 188^-1916. Halleson, 'G. B. HlKtory of the French in India. New ed. London, 1R9.3. Horse, H. B. The trade and admlnlRtration of the Chinese Empire. London and New York, Longmans, Green & Co^ 1908. Mordoch. J., and Yamagata, I. History of .Tapan. Yokohama and Tjondon, 1910. t. 1. Nitob4, I. O. The Janaaese nation. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1912. 834 p. Okuma, S., comp. Fifty years of new Japan. English version ed. by Marcus B. Huish. New York, E. P. Dutton & Co., 1910. Ftpteot, E. Historical and geographical dictionary of Japan. Tokyo, 1910. Parker, B. H. China, her history, diplomacy, and commerce, from the earliest times to the pre!*ent day. London, J. Murray, 1917. Phayre, A. P. History of Burma. London, 1883. Reinsch, Paul S. Intellectual and political currents in. the Far East. Boston and New York, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1911. Richard, L. L. Richard's . . . comprehensive geography of the Chinese Empire, and dependencies. Tr. into English, rev. and enl. hy M. Kennelly. Shanghai, 1908. Bolers of India. Ed. by W. W. Hunter. New York, Oxford, Clarendon Presa, 1802-1903. Sargent, A. J. Anglo-Chinese commerce and diplomacy. Nt'^w York, Oxford Univ. Press 1907. Slmpsoii, B. L. [B. L. Putnam Weale, pseud.J Manchu and Muscovite. London and New York. Macmillan Co., 1904. Smith, A. H. Chinese characteristics. 2d ed. New York and Chicago, F. H. Revell „ * Co., 1894. otrachpy, J. India : its administration and progress. 4th ed. Rev. by Sir Thomas Holdemess. London, 1911. owettenham, F. A. British Malays. London, and New York. John T.Ane & Co., 1908. Walcott A. S. Java and her neighbors. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1914. 350 p. Williams, S. W. The Middle Kingdom, rev. ed. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, ^ 1913-14. Woreestpr, D, C. The Philippines, past and present. New York, Macmillan Co., 1914. — 1^24 p. Wright, A., and Reld, T. H. The Malay Peninsula. London, 1912. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912. 860 p. 98 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. Wright, II. M. Handbook of the Philippines. 3d ed. Chicago, A. C. McClurg & Co., AUSTBAI/ASIA. Tettts. Jenks, E. A hifllory of the Australasian colonies (from their foundation to 1911). 3d ed. New YoA. G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1912. 376 p. Scott, B. A short history of Australia. New York, Ozford University Press, 1917. 363 p. Reference worke, Anstralia. Bureau of Census and Statistics. Official yearbook of the Commonwealth of Australia. Melbourne, no. 1 — ; 1901 + . Clark, V. S. The lat>or movement in Australasia. New York, H. Holt & Co., 1906. Douglas, A. P. The dominion of New Zealand. Boston, Little, Brown & Co., 1909. 443 p. New Zealand. Registrar-general's offica Official yearbook. Wellington^ N. Z. 1st — ; 1891 + . Reeves, W. P. The long white cloud. 2d ed. London, H. Marshall & Son, 1899. State experiments in Australia and New Zealand. London, G. Richards, 1902. Rogers, J. D. Australasia. {In Lucas, Historical geography of the British colonies.) Oxford. Clarendon Press, 1888-1889. Rusden, O. W. History of Australia. 2d ed. Melbourne, 1897. 8 v. History of New Zealand. London, 1883. 3 v. Scholefleld, G. H. New Zealand In evolution. New York, Charles Scribner'a Sons, 1909. Turner, H. 6. A history of the colony of Victoria. London and New York, Longmans, Green & Co., 1904. Wise, B. R. The Commonwealth of Australia. Boston, Little, Brown & Co., 1909. The Year-book of Australia. London, Sydney. 1st — ; 1881 +. POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. By Fkedekic L. Paxson, Professor of History, University of Wisconsin, For practical use in the field of foreign trade and business the background of American history must include two main groups of facts, (1) the underlying historical ideals that form the basis of political discussion, and (2) the appli- cation, during the last half century, of these ideals to the changing world in which we find ourselves. It is not possible to understand the present without constant recurrence to the ideas and events of the last three centuries ; and it is equally impracticable to use to immediate advantage the history of the United States prior to 1877 unless the connecting links between that year and the present are clearly seen. The history of the colonial period and the constitutional period to the close of the Civil War presents a picture without a parallel of a people reduced to the simplest terms, pushing their organized life across a continent, and striving In their agencies of government to meet the problems raised by their daily ex- istence. The big problems that were met and solved were those of — (1) A practicable freedom; for farmers working alone, or in small groups, were free in fact, and there was neither existing i>ower to bring them into subordination nor desire on their part to surrender liberties. (2) A basis for representation, in solving which they had no option but to dwell upon the equal rights of similar areas or groups in determining their common destiny ; and which forced them to drift away from any workable basis that the British Empire could understand. (3) A compromise between local freedom and central control, which was reached when the 13 colonies formed themselves into a Federal Republic of enumerated powers. Democracy, representation, and federation, as thus enumerated, contribute all the basic ideas to the history of the United States. On top of these, the colonial period takes its true proportions, giving the opportunity for democracy to take shape In the wilderness and ripen into self-consciousness. GOVERNMENT. 99 The American Revolution in its relation to representation has always been regarded as a consequence of the different experiences of the British peoples astride the Atlantic. We are now coming to see in it more and more of the reaction of frontier democrats against a society whose doors were nearly closed and whose social layers had become stiff and impermeable. The democratic revolutions that elected Jefferson in 1800 and Jackson in 1828 were only repeti- tions of the original concussion that rent the British Empire. Tlie growth of a National Grovernment in America between its inauguration in 1789 and its survival in the Civil War provides the details for the study of federalism. In a simple people the place of any Federal Government was neces- Barily that of judge and soldier and tax collector. The really important per- sonal matters were local In character ; and just as our colonists detested taxa- .tion without representation, their border-state grandchildren disliked to be subordinated to absentee control. The States' rights principle came to them at this point, and for 80 years we see a gradual evolution, as society became more and ever more complex and as relationships became too broad to be con- trolled by any State. Before the death of John Marshall the law had been provided for as broad an extension of national powers as necessity might dictate. Slavery and terri- torial control, and land and railways then proceeded to dictate that necessity, until .at last the balance was swung, in the sixties, from a Federal Government prevailingly local in emphasis to a National Government encroaching of neces- sity upon local powers. In the groups of facts related to these processes we find the whole vocabulary of political debate in America. No American trader, at home or abroad, can call himself informed unless he understands these facts in their correct settings and relationships. Nor can he use his information to best advantage unless he sees, in much greater detail, the steps by which the new Nation has broadened its ramifications since the Civil War, though ever preserving its organic con- nection with the fundamentals of democracy, representation, and federalism. The whole world to-day can have from this phase of our history more that is full of promise for international reconstruction than it can from all the rest of history. In the 40 years just past an industrial society has replaced an agricultural, bringing with the change alterations in kind and quality that are not yet appreciated. Freedom has ceased to be a matter of little law, or none, as Jefferson wanted it, and has become a matter of much law and wise law. In a e Franco-German War. He should be familiar with the main currents of domestic history of at least a half-dozen of the lead- ing nations, and with the larger phases of diplomatic and military history. He can not be t*)0 well informed on the national policies, the party programs, tlie great pieces of legislation, the industrial and commercial methods and achieve- ments, of the decade preceding the World War; and it does not require argu- ment that he should know the history of tlie war, and of its reactions upon national conditions and policies, in all of their more striking phases. Outside of the European field, the political history most worth giving time to is that of the Far East (especially China and Japan) and that of Latin America, chiefly the "A. B. C. Powers." The most desirable allotment of time for the two subjects of comparative government and political history is a year to each, that is, a year course, with not fewer than three class exercises a week. Next to this would be a year for political history and a half-year for government. After this, a half-year for each subject. Finally, it is possible to handle the two subjects together, in a year course or, in what must be a painfully inadequate fashion, In a half- year course. A combination course would, presumably, be In the main political history, with -parenthetic surveys of the important governmental systems. Whatever the time given these subjects, the courses should be taken only after the student has attained a fair degree of maturity, normally by persons In the Junior and senior years of our college and univei*slties. No single method of presentation is imder all circumstances to be preferre^l. A judicious combination of lectures and class discussion (with frequent written exercises) is likely, in most cases, to give best results. Whatever the method in the classroom, much stress must l3e placed on the student's reading and study. Approximately half of this reading should take the form of definite require- ments made of all students in the course; the remainder should be selected 'by the student, in accordance with his interests and tastes, from books and other materials recommended by the instructor. There is much advantage in requiring each student to make an intensive study of a comparatively small but important topic, with a view to a written report or thesis. 102 TRAI2ook. The Government of England. 2 vols, new ed. New York, Macmlllan Co., 1912. Macy, J., and Gannaway, J. W. Comparative free government. New York, Macmlllan Co., 1915. 754 p. The American and English systems are treated fully and a few other systems very briefly. Moran, T. F. Theory and practice of the English Government, new ed. New York, Longmans. Green Ar Co., 1908. Ogg, F. A. The governments of Europe. New York. Macmlllan Co.. 1920. 775 p. A text book covering the governments of nil the countries of central and western Europe. A revised edition of this book is in preparation. and Ray. P. O. Introduction to American government. New York, Century Co., 1922. Polncare. Raymond. How France is governed. New York, R. M. McBride & Co., 1914. 376 p. Wilson, Woodrow. The state, rev. ed. Boston, D. C. Heath, 1911. 656 p. //. Recent Political History. Andrews, C. M. Historical development of modern Europe, 1815-1897. 2 vols, in 1. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1000. Bassett, J. S. Short history of the TTnited States. New York, Macmlllan Co., 1913. 885 p. The political history of the United States Is presented in an interestinsr and authoritative manner. Beard, C. A. Contemporary American history. New York, Macmlllan Co., 1914. 397 p. The period from 1877 to 1913 is covered briefly. Cambrldire modern history. 12 vols. New York. Macmlllan Co.. 1902. Driault, E., and Monod, G. Evolution du monde modeme : hlstoire politique et sociale. ISI.'J-IOIO. Paris, 1010. Fyffe. C. A. History of modem Europe, 1792-1878. New York. Henry Holt & Co., 1896. Hart, A. B., ed. The American Nation. New York, Harper Bros., 1905—17. Vols. x-xxvii. Extended treatment of the entire field. Hayes, C. J. H. Political and social history of modern Europe. New York, Macmlllan Co. Hazcn, C. D. Europe since 1815. New York. Henrv Holt & Co., 1910. 830 p. Holt, L. H., and Chilton, A. W. History of Europe from 1862 to 1914. New York, Macmlllan Co., 1917. 611 p. A useful textbook on European history since the rise of Bismarck, with stress on International and military affairs. Phillips. W. A. Modern E5urope. 1815-1899. 2d ed. New York, Macmlllan Co., 1902. Diplomatic history is well presented. Robinson, .T. H., and Beard, C. A. Development of modern Europe. Boston, Ginn h Co.. 1907. A brief account* beginning about the middle of the seventeenth century. Rose. J. H. Development of the European nations. 1870-1900. 2 vols. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1016. Selgnobos, C. Political historv of Europe since 1815. Ed. by S. M. Macvane. New York, Henry Holt & Co.. 1900. Seymour. Charles. Diplomatic background of the war. New Haven Conn., Yale Uni- versity Press, 1916. 311 p. DIPLOMATIC HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. By Carl Russell Fish. Professor of American History^ University of Wisconsin, The importance of the study of the diplomatic history of the United States, in training for a career in foreign commerce is obylous, for wliat is our GOVERNMENT. 103 diplomacy but the dealing of Americans with foreigners? Exactly the same problems of differing national characteristics and points of view have con- fronted our diplomats, as daily confront our merchants. The same prin- ciples, the same methods, mean success for the one, as for the other. Nor is it probable that the subject need be handled in any special way for students intending to go into foreign trade. The fundamental principles of bargaining by men responsible to others are always the same. The nearer one gets to what is fundamental in agency, and the handling of unfamiliar sensibilities, and the harmonizing of conflicting interests, the nearer one gets to what is valuable to any man engagefl on the mercantile side of business, foreign or domestic, and the nearer one gets to what is fundamental in diplomatic history. One distinctive advantage of diplomatic history over other fields for teaching purposes is that the actual human handling of cases can be studied with greater minuteness. We can see men actually about the council table, can follow the argument as it goes bacliward and forward, and often Itnow what the con- testants thought about when they went home that night. This is an oppor- tunity which one can not afford to miss, and the purpose of the teacher should not be a smooth, proportioned survey of the whole. Of course there are facts that all should know, and general tendencies are of the essence of the thing taught. In spots, however, there should be enough time and emphasis to bring out every detail of the picture, while connections and setting may be impression istically sisetched in, provided that one remembers that impression- ism is art and not chaos. The effort should be made to so select the leading episodes as to show Americans in negotiation with a variety of nationalities. Individuality must not be neglected, for Its importance and the Importance of a man's knowing himself, and adopting the method suited to his personality, can not be over- emphasized. Yet characteristics that are prevailingly American, or Spanish, or Japanese, can be made strikingly apparent, and are permanently a factor. Naturally, diplomatic encounters should be so handled as to bring out as far as possible the permanent relationships between the United States and the several nations of the world, for in most cases the causes of diplomacy are the causes of business. Of course this is not always the case, for much busi- ness flows without producing any international commotion. Consequently, careful attention should be given to the structure of ordinary diplomatic rela- tionships, the working and changes of our State Department and diplomatic and consular services, through which this stream of noncontentious intercourse is kept smooth. On the other hand, many sensational diplomatic episodes that filled the press for a time may be scantily mentioned or altogether neglected, if they proceed from purely accidental cause. Yet enough such cases should be handled to show that accident, or apparent accident, has significance. A course in diplomatic history should not be a course in international law, but it involves a familiarity with It, and an understanding of its fundamental principles, in much the same way as does the life of a merchant dealing with foreign countries. Personally I began by giving an all-year course of two hours a week. This ran over the whole field of our diplomacy. In the revolutionary period em- phasis was centered on diplomatic method ; in the period of the Napoleonic and Civil Wars, on international law. The clash of unconscious national tendencies was brought out in connection with the expansion of American territory, partic- ularly between 1830 and 1800. The Monroe doctrine and its corollaries make a logical story about which to unfold the course of American policy, and our mod- ern Caribbean and Far Eastern policies form a transition from the old to the new. 104 TRAINING FOB FOfiEIGN SERVICE. With the beginning of the recent war I have treated die stuhject in a thiee- haur, oue^semester course, leaving out the expansion lunvemeot, and devotii^ the whole tinie to the teetinique of diplomacy and evolutkni of Amerjoan ixdiey:. It liaa bei>n my experience that the subject matter of tlie course, tiie handJii]^ ef legal concei>ts, long-continued policies, and particularly' tlie fundamentals of human contact in negotiation, niai^e it too advanced for eophomorets. Juniim and senioH? succeed according to thoir ability. On the oth^* hand, maturity is relatively more important than s()ecial training, and I have not found that •tudeuts without historical background are under any greater diaadvantaga than they are in any advanced course. A course in diplomatic history is best given by lectures, textbooks, and occa- sional quizzes. If the lecturer tries to give all the tissue of connecting incident, it takes up f^o much time tlmt there is not suiScieht opportunity for interpreta- tion. On the other hand a textbook can scarcely give the detail ne(*essary to |9et the full value from the i)ersonal side of the negotiations. Without quizzes, the precision of conception necesnary to appreciate the legal points is not apt to develop. The student also should ha\% an opportunity to use the sources. Almost any collegiate library contains the basic government documents, and the works and lives of tlie leading American diplomats, such as Franklin, Jay, the Adamses, Seward, and Hay, as weli as some foreigners. No one should be ailowefl to ^^scape some contact with these men. Two popular misconceptions have tended in the past to cause tlie public to neglect our diplomatic hiatory. In the first place, most men of present-day affairs have long held the belief that our foreign relations have been without coherence or significance. A moment's thought sliould convince them that events at least must have had a trend, and that of infinite significance to our ever>'day life. A little study will convince them that the ablest men of the Nation united Uicir wisdom to form a logical policy for dealing with our international relationfidiips ; that not only have our foreign relations been vital to us, but we have had a diplomatic record of which to be proud. The second reason for our ne^ect to study this aspect of our life haa been becsiuse Americans have lived convinced that we had full employment for our cnwgies at home and should so employ them. Ttie very fact of our lack of interest in our national diplomacy has a close relation sliip to our failure in the past to gi*asp our full commercial opportunities in other lamls. Inter^t in and knowlodge of the one is largely dependent upon that of the other, aad a study of our foreign relations and the development of our foreign trade logically should go hand in hand. 11HFT5RENCEJS. Tewthooks. Fish, C. R. American diplomacy. New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1915. 541 p. rev. ed., 1918. This cov<*rs the whole period. Foster, .T. W. A century of American diplomacy. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1900. ThiB ends with 1876. lUferrnce Books. Moore. J. B. Digest of internatloDal law. 8 vols. Washington, D. C. Government Print injf Office, 1900. Al)solntely Indisponsable. ilistoi'v and dli?«^Ht of International arbitration. 6 vols. Washins^ton, Govern- ment Printing' Office, 18!)^. Almost equally important. Supplementary Baaaps, Coolidpe, A. C The TTnited States as a world power. New Tork, Macmlllan Co., l^OR. A dlsciiMslon of ttie elements of onr foreign relations In the first yearn of the nin^ tpenth century. Dunning, W. A. The British Empire and the United States. New York, Cfaa«. 8cribner'« Hona, 1D14. 381 p. GOVEfil^MEKX. 105 The subject Ui the hundred years of peace between the two countries following the trmXj ^f GheBt. Bart, A. B. Foundations of Aniericnn foreign policj. 'Sevr York, Macmlllan Co., 1001. Important miscellaneonR essajB. inchiding an Important one on Mblographj. Monroe doctrine, an int»'pretation. Boston. Little, Brown k Co., 1916. 445 pi ICoore, J. B. American diplomacy. New York. Harper & Bros., 1906. Efisaya chiefly «o internatiOBAl law topics. lYeftties, conventions, and international acts . . . S vols. Washlnfrton, D. C, <*ovemca<>Dt i'rintin^ Offic«^, 1913. Tlii« la nec;e8Bary. The annuaj volmmos of Foroijpi relations can be secured by anyone. American State papers, FondRn relatkmB, covering tfie years 1789 to 1628» are an JaexbaoKtibie mine i!or topic wwrk. Contemporary and Foreign Matenti, •nie American yearbook and the International yearbook present most of the more obvioM Caets year by year. The Annaal register gives similar material for earlier years. Of eoorse, no serious study can be made without the documents of otiier countries, but undergraduate instructiou may be given without them. Pcrseual Muteriai. Tke use of 13w wrttlsgs and lives of American and foreign ptatesmen is Indlspesoafole, Iwt the work nuiy he adjusted to the material available. The Writings of Besjamlu Franklin ; the Memoirs of J. Q. Adams ; Frederic Bancroft's Life of W. II. Seward (New York. Harper & Bros.. 1899, 2 vols.) ; C. F. Adam^s tlfe of C. F. Adams (Boston. Hougflh- tott MMIln Co.. 1^16) : and Thayer's Life of John Hay (Boston, Houghton Mifflin <3o., 3M.6), are especially leeooEUBended. General Histories. All general histories oontaia dlscusstons of diplomacy. Especially valuable is J. F. Rhodes's History of the United States (New York, Macmillan Co., 1802-1000) ; and the American Nation, 28 volumes (New Y-ork, Harper k Bros., 1907), edited by A. B. Hart. Nothing written before 1902 on the Monroe doctrine should be used for undergraduates. THE FOREIGN RELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. By John H. Latan£, Projesswr iff AmeriwM History, Johns BopUne Vnkfers^y. ** A democracy whieh undertakes to eoatrol its own foreign relations ought to know something about the subject.'* — Elihu Root. Prior to the Spanish War and the acquisition of the Philippines only casual attention was given by tbe American public to the foreign relations of the United States. The Monroe doctrine defined our Latin-American policy, while tlie tradition of isolation had been so ri^dly adhered to that we gave little heed te what was goiag on in other pairts of the world. The threatened partition of China, the announcement of the open-door policy, and the participation of American troops in the relief expedition to Peking in 1900 brought us for the first time into the fall current of world politics. Our diplMnacy, which had hitherto been concerned exclusively with American questions, now became ex- ceedingly omnplex; and our historic policy of isolation, still cherished as a tnulition« ceased to correspoxMl with the actualities of International re- lations. Oar entrance into the World War in 1917 was the natural and inevi- table consequence of our position as a world power interested in the same degree with other powers in matters which concern the peace and welfare of the community of nations. Questions of foreign policy will undoubtedly be among the most vital issues of the future, and the study of our foreign rela- tloiLs must be given a place in the enrricalum of every American college and university. The whole subject of American history needs to be taught In a broader way, •o as to be brought into more vital relation with world history. The method hitherto employed ot treating it solely fxom the American point of view, a» a 106 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE, detached and Isolated subject, has helped to accentuate our feeling of political isolation and has made us to a greater or less degree blind to the duties imposed upon us by membership in the community of civilized nations. But a change in viewpoint and method in the general courses in American history, while highly desirable, is not alone sufficient. Diplomatic history, in order to receive scientific treatment, must be taught in a separate course. It must not be pre- sented, after the manner of certain even recent textbooks, as a collection of Interesting incidents. It is a subject which is capable of being treated system- atically, and it can be taught to advantage only in close connection with the subject of international law. There is a difference of opinion as to whether international law or diplomacy should come first in the college curriculum. International law furnishes the principles, and diplomacy the incidents and cases. Diplomatic history should, therefore, if the inductive method is to be followed, either come first or be accompanied by a course in international law. The course in diplomacy should be preceded by a course in American history. In most college courses American history comes as an elective in the third or fourth year. If courses in diplo- matic history and international law are to be introduced, American history should fall in the third year, and diplomacy and International law in the fourth. In the fourth year two arrangements are possible; parallel courses in diplomacy and international law running throughout the year, or, If time can not be found for two courses, then a course in diplomacy during the first half- year and a course in International law during the second half-year. REFERENCES. Collections of Sources. American state papers: Porelgrn relations (1789-1828). 6 vols. Washington, D. C^ 1832-1859. Folio. British and foreign state papers. London. (106 volames Issued to 1913.) Diplomatic correspondence of the American Revolution. Ed. by Francis Wharton. 6 vols. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1889. Diplomatic correspondence of the United States, 1783-1789. 8 vols. Washington, D. C, 1837 Diplomatic correspondence of the United States, 1861-1869. Washington, D. C, 1861- 1869. (Issued annually.) Foreign relations of the United States, 1870-1913. Washington, D. C. (Issued an- nually.) Moore. J. B. Digest of International law. 8 vols. Washington, D. C, Government Printing OfBce, 1906. i History and digest of international arbitrations to which the United Statel has been a party. 6 vols. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1898. Richardson, James D. Messages and papers of the Presidents, 1780-1 S97. 10 volB. Washington, 1896-1899. Treaties and conventions of the United States, 1776-1909. 2 vols. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1910. General Works. CooUdge, A. C. The United States ns a world power. New York, Macmlllan Co., 1908. Foster, J. W. A century of American diplomacy, 1776-1876. Boston, Houghton MlflUn Co., 1900. Hart, A. B. The foundations of American foreign policy. New York, Macmlllan COw, 1901. Henderson, .John B., jr. American diplomatic questions. New York, Macmlllan Co., 1901. Johnson, Willis Fletcher. America's foreign relations. 2 vols. New York, The CSen- tury Co., 1916. Moore, J. B. Principles of American diplomacy. New York, Harper Brothers, 1918. Works on Special Topics. Adams, C. F. Ufe of Charles Francis Adams. Boston, Houghton MifBin Oi>.« M.t, 224 p. "The treaty of Washington, before and after." In Lee at Appomattox and other papers. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1902. Adams, E. D. British Interests and activities In Texas, 1838-1846. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1910. Bancroft, Frederic. Life of William H. Seward. 2 vols. New York, Harper Bros., 1900. Beverldge. Albert J. The life of John Marshall. Vol. 2. Boston, New York, Houghton Mifflin Co.. 1916. Dunning, William A. The British Empire and the United States. New York, Clias. Scrlbner's Sons, 1914. 381 p. GOVBBNMENT. 107 Foster, J. W. American diplomacy In the Orient. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1903. Hart, A. B. The Monroe doctrine; an Interpretation. Boston, Little, Brown & Co^ 1916. 445 p. Holl^ F. W. The Peace Conference at The Hague. New York, MacmlUan Co., 1914. Latan4, John H. The United States and Latin America. New York, Doubleday, Page & Co., 1920. Lodge, Henry Cahot. One hundred years of peace. New York, MacmlUan Co., 1918. 136 D. Fsaallin, 0. O. Diplomatic negotiations of American nayal officers, 1778-1888. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1912. 880 p. Beddaway, W. F. The Monroe doctrine. New York, G. E. Stechert ft Co., 1905. Beeves, J. S. American diplomacy under Tyler and Polk. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press 1907. Rush, Bichard. Memoranda of a residence at the court of London. Second series^ 1819-1825. Philadelphia. 1845. Scott, James Brown. The Hague Peace Conference of 1899 and 1907. 2 vols. Balti- more, Johns Hopkins Press, 1909. Treat, Pavson J. Early diplomatic relations between the United States and Japan* 185:^1865. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press. 1917. Updyke. F. A. The diplomacy of the War of 1812. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1910w 4M p. CONTEMPORARY INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. By Amos S. Hebshey, Professor of Politioal Science and International Law, Indiana UniverH$tf» The study of international relations deserves mnch more attention in onr universities, colleges, and even in the pnblic schools than it has hitherto re- ceived. Prior to the outbreak of the World War, instruction along these lines was so scant as to be scarcely worth mentioniug. Hence our profound ignorance of the causes of the struggle and of the issues Involved. In the public schools problems of foreign policy like the Monroe doctrine may have received some consideration in the course on American history, but they were dealt with in strictly historical fashion, and it is to be feared that there was little discussion of present-day problems or tendencies. It is possible that questions of Inter- national interest were occasionally discussed in connection with current eventai, but necessarily in a fragmented and superficial manner. In our colleges, and even in our universities, conditions were not much better. Frequently a course in international law was given, but, speaking relatively, in only a few of our universities have advanced or more complete courses In this important subject been offered. Courses in American diplomatic history have usually formed a part of the university curriculum, but little attention has been paid to European diplomatic history or to our relations with the Far East. Consequently, the ignorance of even the educated American public has been much greater on international than on domestic questions. Since the outbreak of the World War there has been some slight improve- ment in respect to the study of international relations. At least courses on the "causes of the war" have come into vogue, and instructors in European history seem to be more alive than formerly to the importance of the period since 1870. Nevertheless, there appears even yet to be a very inadequate understanding of the importance and scope of international relations. It does not seem to be clearly realized that international law forms a relatively small field in the far vaster area of international relations, where motives of policy and national Interest are apt to prevail rather than standards based upon legal or ethical conceptions. The writer is alrio convinced that our so-called knowledge of international relations usually rests upon too narrow a basis, or Is derived too exclusively from official or diplomatic sources. Official documents are excellent material in their way, if properly interpreted. They are, indeed, indispensable, though not always trustworthy. But they only furnish keys to a few of the doors which we wish to open. 82186*— 22 6 108 TRAINING FOB FOREIGN SERVICE. A knowledge of international relations Bhould be based upon a study of realities, a proper sense of which is often strangely Incklng in diplomatists. The great modern Journalists are often much safer guides. Ideally speaking, the student of international relations should have both a comprehensive and intimate knowledge of all nations and peoples, including, of course, his own. His first need, perhaps, would be an insight into the national psychology of the peoples or nations he is studying. Then be should have a knowledge of their intellectual as well as material resources, their trade re- lations, their hiistory, industrial and political systems, etc. But since ** art is long and time is fleeting,'* the student must perforce con- tent himself with a more modest program* He will perhaps do well, at first eit least, to confine himself largely to a study of national policies like those of tlie Monroe doctrine or the " Open door," to international problems like those of sea power or the freedom of the seas, and to the causes of war, with a view to discovering remedies or preventives. The most essential knowledge of all relates to national interests and policies and to our relations with our real friends and neighbors. Too much stress should not be laid upon mere geographical contiguity or continental isolation. Thus, our relations with the A. B. C. powers (Argentina, Brazil, and Chile) are important, but not as important as are our relations with C'anada, the countries of western Europe, or with the peoples bordering on the American Mediterranean, L e., the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. As an illustration of the courses which might be offered, attention may per- haps be called to the work In contemporary international relations offered at Indiana University during the past few years. Since the outbreak of the World War an imperfect attempt has been made to fill in to some extent this great gap in our curriculum. In addition to the former course In international law, there have been offere. Appleton & Co«. 1916. 879 p. Lditan4, J. H. From ieolatloci to leadership. New York, DanUeday, Pase ft Co., 1918. 215 p. j^, -^ . Moore, J. B. A digest of International law. Washington, D. C, Gov't Printing Office, 1906. 8 vol«. American diplomacy. New York, Harper & Bros., 1005. JPovers. H. H. Americn among the nations. New York. Macmillan Co., 1917. 878 p. Boblnson. E. B., and West, V. J. The foreign policy of Woodrow Wilson. Now York, MaemiUan Co.. 1917. 428 p. The Par East. orea. New Yoi Brown, A. J. The masfery of the Far East. New York, Scribner, 1921. 661 Bland, J. O. China, Japan, and Korea._ New York,_Scribner, 1921. 327 p. orowu, A. J. ine mastery ox rne rar iijasi. isew lorx, Hcnoner, lyxi. ovi p. Hershey, A. 8., and S. W. Modern Japan. Indianapolis, Bobbsr-Morrill Co., 1918. 382 p. Douglas, R. K. Europe and the Far East. Now York. G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1904. Hombeck, Stanley. Contempocary politics In the Far Bast. New York, D. Appleton A Co., 1916. 466jp. Millard, T. P. Our Eastern questfon. New York, Century Co., 1916. 648 p. Latin American Relations. Bryce, James. South America ; obser^'atlons ,and impresalons. New York, Macmillan Co 1914. 611 p. Garcia-Calderon, F. tatin America, Its rise and {wogress. New York, Charles Scribner'f Sons, 1913. 406 p. Jones. C. L. The CiCrlbbean intereats of the United States. New York, D. Appleton 4b Co., 1916. 379 p. Mexico and Its reconstruction. New York, Appleton A Co., 1^21. 380 p. Slh^berd, W. R. lAtln America. New York, Henry Ilolt & Co., 1914. 256 p. THE STUDY OF AMERICAN DIPLOMACY, TREATIES, AND FOREIGN POLICY. By A. B. Hakt, Professor of Government, ffarvard UniversHy. Two types of learners come to drink at the Castilian fount of diplomatic procedure and history — the man who studies by himself, and the man who has the opportunity of systematic advanced instruction. The approach to the desired goal necessarily differs in the two cases. The coUeg;e man is pHotellections of select cases particularly Cobbett, Cases and Opinions on Interna- tional Law ; J. B. Scott, Cases ; L. B. Evans, Cases. Many important topics may be found in the Cyclopedia of American Government (use the cross references). 110 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SBRVICB. One of the main materials for International law is treaties; and the stand- ard edition of United States treaties edited by W. N. Malloy, in two volomesy and the additional volume edited by G. Charles, are easily available. For the Diplomatic Service a knowledge of American diplomatic history is of course indispensable. The student who is working by himself should therefore read with care and attention diplomatic stories of America, of which G. B. Fish, American Diplomacy, is the best for the purpose, inasmuch as it is writ- ten with broad knowledge and appreciation of the student's needs and diffi- culties. This may be supplemented by reading the diplomatic chapters in The American Nation, a history which in the twenty-seventh volume of text brings the narrative down to 1917. Nearly every volume contains chapters on diplo- matic history, which taken together make a consecutive narrative. An ab- solutely indispensable parallel volume is J. W. Foster, Practice of Diplomacy, which is based on the author's long experience as a diplomat More detailed studies of particular, questions in international law and of specific episodes in American diplomatic history can readily be found through the brief articles in the Cyclopedia of American Government and their refer- ences; and through Canning, Hart, and Turner, Guide to the Study and Reading of American History, with elaborate bibliography of the earlier and especially recent diplomatic problems. A. B. Hart's Foundations of Foreign Policy includes a list of authorities in Am^lcan diplomacy down to 1901. In A. B. Hart, American History, Diplomacy, and Government, will be found at sections 64-95 a set of 90 topics, with brief outlines and specific references; also at sections 166-196, a set of 90 special topics with more elaborate references. The young man who has the opportunity of college and university courses in international law and diplomacy has the broader opportunity of fitting his work in with other fields, In a sequence of formal courses. The first necessity — this applies also to the self -preparing young man — is good grounding in English composition, including the declining art of spelling. The ordinary processes of arithmetic are useful to any public ofilcial, and a thorough knowl- edge of geography, physical and political, is essential. Somewhere In the course should come a study of French, Spanish, and German sufilcient to enable the student to read books and newspapers in those languages with ease; and also to possess a speaking knowledge of at least one. It is of prime importance that the future consul and diplomat should be able to understand what the other fellows are doing. Of course, the future diplomat will make himself familiar with the history of Europe and of the United States, so as to know what has been going on in the big world of which diplomats take notice ; and so as to trace the develop- ment of international law and the difficult present questions of territory, trade, colonization, and national influence. Excellent instruction for reader and student are C. D. fiazen, French Revolution, and Europe since 1815, or Carlton Hayes, Political and Social History of Modern Europe; J. S. Bassett, United States, adds special courses on Russia, Latin America, and the Orient, fields in which future diplomacy is likely to be particularly vivid. A formal course in international law should come in the second of third year of a college course, on top of and alongside the narrative historical courses. A good parallel is a course in American constitutional law or in com- parative government. Later in the college course the student must take ad- vanced and special courses In International law and diplomatic history. He should not fail to study the history of trade and commerce. At least one system- atic course in economics should be taken. GOVBBNMENT. Ill In these courses, especially those on international law and diplomacy, the student should do abundant written work. Nothing is more useful to a public man than facility in getting up and clearly presenting information on a specific subject. It is very desirable to write at least one elaborate thesis on some one topic in American diplomacy requiring the application of principles of inter- national law. All this class work should be supplemented by good private reading in his- tory, government, and diplomacy. Read lives of practiced diplomats, such as William E. Seward and John Hay, and reminiscences of men like John W. Foster and Andrew D. White, to reveal the inner workings of the State Depart- ment and the embassies. The self-teacher and the university man alike must form the habit of bring- ing themselves to book, by making brief abstracts of the volumes that they handle, by framing outlines of important subjects with which they deal; by Ribmittlng six such examinations and tests as are possible ; by trying to bring together into one group their remembrances and thoughts, so that whatever they may read, study, or think obout will bear upon their main subject of study. BSTTBRBNCKS. American Diplomacy and International Subjects. Channine, Edward. Hart, Albert Busbnell, and Turner, Frederick Jackson. Guide to the 8tua\' and reading of American history. Rev. and augmented ed. Boston, Ginn & Co., mi. Many sections contain bibliographies of diplomatic events and periods. Use index. Hart. Albert Bushnell. America at war ; a handbook of patriotic references. New York, George H. Doran Co.. 1918. Issued by the National Security League. Includes a classified bibliography of the war, including the diplomatic episodes. The foundation of American foreign policy. With a working bibliography. New York, Macmillan Co., 1901. Chapter VIII includes a classified list of the principal works on diplomacy down to 1901. Manual of American history, diplomacy and government for class use. Cam- bridge. Mass., Harvard University. Union Press, 1908. Contains several lists of diplomatic topics [H64-94, 166-197, 270-282], with specific references down to 1908. McLaughlin, Andrew C, and Hart, Albert Bushnell, eff«. Cyclopedia of American Gov- ernment. 8 yols., New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1914. Large number of specific articles and numerous '* treatise articles " on interna- tional law and diplomacy, with brief recent lists of references and in connection with articles. Elaborate index. Iloore. John Bassett. Digrest of international law, as embodied . . . especially In docu< ments of the United Stateft. Washington, D. C, Government I*rinting Office, 1006. Elaborate list of authorities in toI. 8. See also lists of authorities In the diplomatic histories, treaties in International law and ofllcial materials. Compendiums. American journal of international law. With supplement of official documents. (Quar- terly.) New York, Baker Voorhls & Co., later Oxford University Press, 1907- In^spensable for students and teacbers of diplomacy and international law; abounds in Information and conveniences. American yearbook. New York. D. Appleton A Co., 1907- Annual, including sections in International and foreign relations. McLaughlin, Andrew C. and Hart, Albert Bushnell. ed9. Cyclopedia of American Gov- ernment. 3 vols. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1914. Numerous " treatise articles " and large numbers of brief specific articles on diplomacy and international law. Use the cross references' nnd elaborate index. Select Treatises on International Late. Davis, George B. The elements of International law, with an account of its origin, sources; and historical development. 3d ed. New York, Harper ft Bros., 1908. Hall. William Edward. A treatise on international law. 7th ed. by A. P. Higglns. Oxford,- Clarendon Press. 1917. 168 p. Most serviceable English work, for classes or private study. Hershey, Amos S. Essentials of international law. New York, Macmillan Co., 1912. 658 p. Lawrence. T. J. The principles of international law. 4th od. Boston, D. C. Heath ft Co., 1913. 189 p. Oppenheim, L. International law. Vol. II, War and neutrality. 2d ed. New York, Longmans Green ft Co.. 1912. • A distinguished English authority. Scott. James Brown, ed. Classics of international law. Washington, D. C, Carnegie Institution, 1910. 112 TRAINING FOB FOaEIGN SERVICE. Stockton, Cbarlos. Outlines of ioteruational law. New Tork, Charles ijicrlhner'6 Sonflp 1D14. 616 p. Westlake. Jobu. Interuatioaal law. Part 1 : Peace ; Part II : War. New Y<^k. G. P. Putnam'B Sons. 1910. Wilson, Georjire Grafton. Handliook of international law. fit. Paul, West Pub. Co., 1910. G23 p. Ofpoial Materials. Malloy, William M. Treaties, conventions. International acts, protocols and arguments between the United States of America and other powers, 1776-1919. 2 vols. Wash- ington, D. (\, Government Printing Office, 1913. ('ontlnued by Garfield Charles to 1913. Washington, D. C. Government Printing Office, 1913. Standard colleetioo of all tlie treaties ever publlssbed bj the United States Government. JCoore, John Bassett. A Digest of International law as embodied . . . especially In documents ... of the United States. 8 vols. Washington, D. C, Goveriimcfkt Printing Office, 1906. Classified precedents, especially from the practice of the United States. Indis- pensable for the close student. — »* History and digest of International arbitrations to which the United States has been a party. 6 vols. Washington, D. C.^ Government Printing Office, 1898. Unrivaled collection of materials and discussion of many problems. Volume of maps. \ Richardson, James D. A compilation of messages and papers of the Presidents, 178^ 1897. 10 vols. Washington, D. C. Gevernment Printing Offiee. 1896-1809. Also an edition In 11 vols. (1789-1905). Bureau of national literature and art, 1907. O/^oia^ Oorre^ondenee. The diplomatic correspondence of the United States of America, from the signing of the definite treaty of peace, 10th September, 1783, to the adoption of the Constitution, March 4, 1789. 7 vols. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1833-1834. Reprinted In 3 vols., 1887. Hasse, Adelaide R. Index to United States documents relating to foreign alfaira, 182d- 1861. Part I — A to H. Washington, D. C, Carnegie Institution, 1914. List of congressional documents published during the period 1828-1861 in A. B. Hart's Foundations of American policy, p. 281-283. I/Owrie, Walter, and Clark. Matthew St Clair, ed4i. American state papers; documents, legislative and executive, of the Congi'ess of the United States ; Class I, Foreign relations. 6 vols. Washington, D. C. Government Printing Office, 18S2-1859. Between 1828 and 1860 t£ere was no systematic collection, and tiie very important diplomatic correspondence is scattered through the executive documents. The Presi- dent in many special messages refers to particular correspondence, which may be traced through ulcbardson's Messages of tfie Presidents. Partial Index to this ma- terlal. Papers relating to the foreign relations of the United States. Annual issue, beginning with 1861. Washington. D. C. Cwovemment Printing Office, 1861-. General index . . . 1861-1899 {ibid, 1902). From 1861 to 1868 designated as Diplomatic correspondence: since 1870 as Foreign relations. Foreign relations have also appeared from time to time in the co^igressional documents In response to I'equests from Congress. Wharton, Francis. The Revolutionary diplomatic correspondence of the United States. 6 vols. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1889. This contains substantially the material of the Sparks edition, with many addi- tions, and is arranged chronologically. Case Books. All searching courses in International law now Include the study of selected cases, which are most easily handled in one or more of the following collections : Cobbett, Pitt. Cases and opinions on international law, and various points of E^ngllsh law connected therewith . . . with notes. 3d ed. 2 vols. London, Stevens ft Haynes. 1909-1913. Standard English collection. Hivans. Ijiwrence B. Leading cases on International law. Chicago, Callaghan Jc Co., 1917. 477 p. Recent and convenient collection, .ficott, James Brown. Cases on international law selected from decisions of Engilui and American courts, witli syllabus and annotations. St. Paul, West Pub. Co., 1902. Standard collection for class and private use. Stowell. EUerv C. Consular cases and opinions from the decisions of the Bnglish and American courts and the opinions of the Attorney General. Washington, D. C, Jobn Byrne & Co., 1909. Only collection of Its kind. ■■■ and: Munro, Henry F. International cases. Arbitration and incidents iUu9* trative of international law as practiced by independent states. 2 vols. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1916. 662 p. Includes cases arislnfr out of the European War. Wamhaugh, I*higene. A selection of cases on constitutional law. 4 vols. Cambridge, Mass.. Harvard University Press. 1014—15. Standard collection for law students and useful to all votaries of the subject. American Diplomatic History. The American Nation ; a history. 28 vols, including index volume. New Tork, Harper & Bros. ! Numerous chapters on diplomacy, and select lists in the critical essays on I authorities at the end of eacn volume. GOVERNMKKT. 118 Ttah, Gad R«m«11. American diplomacy. New York, HcAry Holt 4b Co^ 1^16. 641 p. Best hodk on Its topic; brief, accurate, and comprehenBlve. VSoBter. Jolm Wataoo. A century of American diptomacy, 1776-1876. Boston, Houghton MifBin Co.. 1900. E8pe«ially useful from 1860 to 1676. Johnson, Willis Fletcher. America's foreiini relations. 2 vols. New York, Century Co., 1916. Special Topics in Diplomacy. Crandall. Samuel B. Treaties, their making and enforcement. 2d ed. Washington, D. C, John Byrne A Co., 1^16. 668 p. Standard on Its subject. Very useful. Foster. John W. The practice of diplomacy as Illustrated. in the foreign relations of the United States. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co.. 1906. Standard on the subject. Bboald he read by all students. floot GaJllard. The Department of State of the United States; its history and fuae- tions. New Hayen, Yale University Press, 1914. 459 p. By an ofDdal of the depsrtiii<»tit. V«ry useful. McOmui, Alfred T. The IntLoence of sea p&wer upon history, 1660-1783. Boston, iJlttle, Brown & Co., 1890. A work of genius whicb has modified the nayal policy of the wortd. Mahan wrote several other books on the same general theme. Uoore. John Bassett. The principles of American diplomacy. New York, Harper A Bros., 1918. 477 p. Expansion of an earlier work, by a master of ftntematlonal law practice. Tan Dyne, Frederick. Our foreign service ; the A B C of American diplomacy. Rochester, N; T^ Lawyers' Cooperative Pmh. Co., 1909. « Same field as Foster, but a little more recent. Bfiiith-Amertean Dipiamaoif, Callahan, James M. The neutrality of the American lakes and Anglo-American rela- tions. Rochester. N. Y., Lawyers* Cooperative Pnb. Co^ -1909. Standard on its subject. Donning, William A. The British Empire and the United States ; a review of their relations during the ceetviy «f peace. New York, Chas. Scribner's Sons, 1914. 384 p. Favorable to Great Brttaia. Harris, Thomas L. The Trent affair, includixig a review of Bnglif4i and American rations at l^ie beginning -of the Civil War. Indlaaapolls, Bobbs-Merrill k Co.. 1666. Can be supplemented by tbe books of Nleolay and Hay and Charles Frands Adams. Manning. William R. The Kootka Sound osntrorersy. WathlngtoD, D. C, Government Printing Ofllce, 1905. Standard on its subject. JPeiplns, James B. Fmnce in the American Revolution. Boston, Houghton Mlfllin Co., 1911. Best book in English ngmans, Green & Co., 1870. Bigeiow, JoSin. France and the Confederate Navy. New York. Harper & Bros., 1888. Bulock, James D. The secret service of the Confederate States in ISurope. New York* G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1888. By the agent of the Confederacy. Callahan, James M. The diplomatic history of the Southern Confederacy. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press. 1901. 114 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. Klcolay, John G., end Flay, John. Abraham Lincoln : a history* 10 TOla. New York, Century Co., 1902. . , Contains so much on the diplomatic events of the CWil War as to deserve special mention. Rhodes, James F. History of the United States. 7 vols. New York, MacmiUan Co., 1892—1906. Vols. Ill and IV contain important chapters on Civil War diplomacy. Latin-American Diplomacy* Benton, Elbert J. International law and diplomacy of the Spanifih>American War. Bal- timore, Johns Hopkins Press. 1908. Best brief book on its fiubject. Callahan, James M. Cuba and International relations; a historical study in American diplomacy. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1899. Chadwlek. French B. The relations of the United States and Spain. 8 vols. New York. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1909-11. Vol. 1, Diplomacy ; vols. 2 and 3, Spanish- American War. Very full and careful. Hart, Albert Bushnell. The Monroe Doctrine ; an interpretation. Boston, Little, Brown & Co.. 1916. 445 p. With map and biolloKraphy. Jones, Chester L. Caribbean interests of the United States. New York, D. Appleton & Co. Latan^. John H. The diplomatic relations of the United States and Spanish America. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press. 1900. Very good down to its date. Reeves, Jesse S. American diplomacy under Tyler and Polk. Baltimore, Johns Hopkina Press, 1907. Searching In its field. Rives, (ieorge L. The United States and Mexico. 1821-1848. 2 vols. New York, Charlea Scribner's Sons, 1918. Supplements Reeves. Smith, Justin H. The annexation of Texas. New York, Baker & Taylor Co., 1911. Very carefully prepared. Pacific and Oriental Diplomacy. Callahan. James M. .\merlcan relations in the Pacific and the Far East, 1784-1900. Baltimore. Johns Hopkins Presa 1901. Carpenter, Edmund J. America in Hawaii: a history of the United States* influence in the Hawaiian Islands. Boston, Small, Maynard Co., 1899. Conant, Charles A. The United States in the Orient ; the nature of the economic problem. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1900. By a man specially interested in commerce. Foster, .John W. American diplomacy in the Orient. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1008. By the envoy of China in the peace negotiations with Japan in 1905. ICawakami, Kyoshl K. American-Japanese relations ; an inside view of Japan's policies and purposes. New York, P. H. Revel! & Co.. 1912. A good book from the Japanese point of view. Treat, Payson I. The early diplomatic relations between the United States and Japan. 1863-1865. Baltimore. Johns Hopkins Press, 1917. 468 p. COLONIZATION AND COLONIAL POLICIES. By G. F. Andrews. Preparation for colonial service is not merely a matter of training young men for official positions In the foreign possessions of the Unitelonlal law — (a) Commercial law — (6) Native law and customs — (c) Administration of the Empire. 3. Ethnology — (a) Comparative religions — (&) Languages. 4. €reography of the Empire — Climate. 5. Sociological and political conditions in the dominions and colonies. 6. Theory of the Empire (comparison with other empires). B. Practical course: 1. Tropical hygiene. 2. Agriculture — forestry — commercial botany. 3. Commerce and Industry of the Empire. 4. Conservation of resources. Preparation in Holland offers no important suggestions for this brief state- ment Prance has three notable colonial schools (supplemented by important lec- tures'given at the Sorbonne and under the auspices of the colonial societies). A £cole Colonial (Paris). (Two-year course open to French and natives of the colonies and dependencies.) Subjects — Practical administration — colonial law and languages — ^Ws- tory and geography — ethnology — ^hygiene — colonization, etc. B. £cole Pratique Coloniale (practical commercial education). Courses in hygiene, history, geography, administration, etc. C. Institut Colonial de Marseille (two-year course). 1. Study of vegetable, animal, and mineral products. 2. Commerce and colonization. 3. Hygiene, climate, agriculture, etc. Germany also has three important schools : A. Hamburgische Kolonial Institut (special training for business and com- merce, as well as for colonial officials). B. Deutsche Kolonial Schule (practical colonial training). C. Seminar fiir Orientalische Sprachen (purely theoretical). Courses in languages, administration, economics, and advanced science. We Americans may well take to ourselves the words of Evans Lewln : " We Britishers know to our cost that where Germans have outstripped us they have done 80 by virtue of superior educational facilities," and we may add "and others" to Gtermans. The Industrial development of Germany was, to a considerable extent, based on an investigation of the sources of raw material in the colonies of other powers. The palm product trade of Dahomey is controlled by Grermans, and we buy from Hamburg second-grade palm oil, extracted in Germany from kernels ^ See Evans Lewin — The Germans and Africa. 116 TRAIKIKG rOB FOBEIGN SEEVICE. Uuported from the French colony, and palm oil is a product of increasing ins- poTtaiice in this country. The important trade in liides, in India* is controlled by Crcrmans who have studied India and the trade to some purpose.* These ace but Instances of German enterprise backed by careful preparation. In suggesting a course for preparation for colonial service, it is assumed that the student has taken subje(?ts offered in a general course of preparation for foreign service, modern languages, commercial and maritime law, etc, modem history, diplomatic and political history, foreign exchange, etc. The colonial course should, therefore, be offered to seniors, and possibly to Juniors. It Is, of course, highly desirable that the student should have some knowledge of the principal language spoken by the natives in the colony where he intends to serve, A satisfactory course should extend over two half years, but could be covered with considerable profit in one half year, three hours per we€d^ if some subjects Included in the suggested plan were covered in usual courses in history, economics, etc., and sucli subjects as hygiene, tropical medicine, etc, were taken up in special lectures. A course proposed for preparation for colonial service; A. Outline history of colonization (with special reference to modern times). B. Present systems of colonial government, including dependencies (with par- ticular reference to the possessions of Great Britain, France, Germany^ and the United States). 1. Colonies for colonization. 2. Colonies primarily for commercial development. C. The relation of the colony to the mother country. The question of trade following the flag. D. The future of colonies, as affected, for example, by the character of the I)opulation, by climatic conditions, etc. E. The question of colonial self-determination In respect to form of govern- mejit and policies. F. Investigation of representative colonies: 1. Nature of products and probability of increase. 2. Nature of Imports — what goods not now imiwrted should ftnd a market In the colony under discussion. 3. Tariff system and special local charges on commerce and businees. ' 4. What opportunity appears to be open to the United States as buyer or seller. How would local discrimination In such matters as hanking and ship- ping facilities affect trade with the United Stat^? G. Hygiene and tropical medicine. H. Foreign possessions of the United States: 1. History of the foreign possessions of the United States. 2. Analysis of conditions in each of the possessions. (a) Administration. (6) Population, language, customs, laws. (c) Products, imports, exports. (d) Growth of commerce — commercial relations with the various countries. The suggestion that some of tliese subjects could be treated by extending other regular courses is possible but certainly not desirable; they should be studied in their relation to each other, and this can not be done if the student gathers his knowledge bit by bit from courses not directly concerned with colonial questions. Textbooks could not be used to advantage. The student should have acoefiSi at least, to a small, well-selected library on colonial questions. But most oC the works should be found in any weU-equipped cc^ege library. 3 It 1h interesting to note that la 1013 and the first six months «f 1914 Germany enormously increased her imports of hides from India. BfiJFBBENCEB. Otneral. Cbtton, J. 8., and Pftyne, B. J. Colonlefl «jQd dependencies. 3:888. France. AnDuair<^. Fablisbed ^y the local government of each of the French colonies. Contains con* sidprable detailed luformatlon. Great Britain. Diplomatic and cont^ular reports. K5ber, O. EinfOhruni? in die KolonialpoUtik. Jena. O. FUcher, 1908. Leroy-BeauUeu, Paul. De la colonination chez lea peuples modernee. 6 ed. Paris, 1908. Lewis, i>ir G. C. EiaBays on the government of dep^'urlencles. London, J. Murray, 1891. Loweli A. L. Colonial civil service. New York, MacraiUwi Co., 1990. Morris H. C. History of colonization. New York, Macmillan to., 190S. 2 vols. Mnir, Ramsay. The expansion of Bupopo. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 11)17. 243 p. Bed way, J. W. Commepcial »eogi*aphy. New York, Cba». /iicribner's Sons, 1911. Beinsch, P. S. Colonial administration. New York, Macmillan Co., 1905. Colonial government. New York, Macmillan Co.. 1900. World politics. New York, Macmillan Co., 1900. ^^tatesman'8 yearbook. Townsend, Meredith. Asia and Europe. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1905. A stndy of races United (States. Department of Commerce. Beports. Dejmrtment of the Trea.sury. Colonial adminlBtration, 1800-1900. Wakefield. B. G. Art of colonisation. Now York, Oxford University Press, 1914. 510 p. Ztmmermann, A. Weitpolitiscfaes : Beltrftge and IStudien snr neuoren Kolonialbewegung. 1901. Theories of colonization. German Colonics, BQlow, B. H. von. Imperial Germany. New York, Dodd, Mead & Co., 1917. 835 p. Die Deutschen Schntzgebiete in Atclka und der Sddsee. 1911. Published by the Ger- man Government. Doerr, F. Deutsches Kolonlalzlvilprozessrocht. Leipzig, C. L, Hirschfeld, 1914. Fidel, CamlUe. L'AUemagne d'ontre-mer. 1915. Heydt, K. von der. Kolonlnl Handbuch. 4 Johrg. Berlin, Yerl. f. Corsen u. finanx literatur, 1910. Hogrefe, L. Auslandsbuch fUr Kanfleute. (Die Deutschen Kolonien und das Uberseeische Ausland.) 1913. Le Sueur, Gordon. Germany's vanishing colonies. New York, McBrlde, Nast & Co., 1915. 189 p. Lewin, Percy Evaiui. The Germans and Africa. New York, F. A. Stokes & Co., 1915. 817 p. Italian Coloniet, Braun, E. The new Tripoli and what I saw In the hinterland. 1914. McClure. W. K. Italy in North Africa. New York, 1918. Tittoni, T. Commercial and colonial policy of Italy. London, E. Smith, 1914. Veedil. P. de. Italy's civilizing mission in Africa. New York, Brentano, 1912. 79 p. Belgian Colonies. Calmeyn. Au Congo Beige. 1912. Decamps, E. New Africa. London, S. Low, Marston & Co., 1903. Monntmorres, Viscount. The Congo Independent State. London, Williams & Norgate, 1906. 166 p. A report on a voyage of inqniry. Dutch Colonies, Akia-Hlfffglna, A. Java, with DOtes concerning the Dutch Archipelago, Bangkok, .Johore. 1910. Brown. J. M. The Dutch Bast. New York, E. P. Dutton & Co. 1914. 222 p. Day, C. The policy and admlalatration of the Dutch In Java. New York, Macmillan Co. 1904. Woncfoid, W. B. A viaH to Java. London, R. Bentley & Son, 1893. Wright, A., and Breakspear, O. T., editors. Twentieth century impressions of Nether- lands India : Its people, history, commerce, induntries, and resources. 1909. Portuguese Colonies. D'Orset, A. J. D. Portogoese discoveries, dependencies, and n4s8lonB. London, W. H. Allen ft Co., 1893. Uangham. R. C. F. Poftugvese Ea«ft Africa. New York, E. P. Dutton & Co., 1906. . Zambeela. New York, Charles Scriboer's Sons, 1914. 376 p. British Possessions. Aldridge. T. J. A transformed colony. (Sierra Leone.) New York, D. Appleton ft Co., 1910. Alexander, J. The truth aJbout Hkjynt. New York. Cassell & Co., 1911. 384 p. Aohin, fiog^ne. Les Aoglals aux Indes et en Egypt. 4th ed. Paris. A. Colin, 1909. Barclay, 8ir T. Thirty years Anglo-French reminiscences. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1914. .*189 p. _ British Empire series. 5 vols. New York. Funk ft Wagnalls Co., 1902. Vol. 1 — Asia ; vol. 2 — Africa ; vol. 3 — British America ; vol. 4 — Australasia ; vol. 5— General. Cromer, Earl of. Modem Egypt. New York, Macmillan Co., 1908. 118 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. Egerton, H. B. Origin and growtli of Engliah colonlM. New York, Oxford Univeraltj PreHS, 1904. Eliot, Sir Cbarles. The East Africa protectorate. New York, Longmans, Green & Co., Hunter, Sir W. W. The Indian Empire. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1800. Ilbert, Sir C. P. The government of India. Oxford University Press, 1910. Lee-Warner, William. The protected princes of India. New xork, Macmillan Co., 1894. 389 1). Lugard. Juady. A tropical dependency. London, J. Nisbet & Co., 1905. 508 p. Low, Sidney. Egypt in transition. New York, Macmillan Co., 1914. 316 p. Lucas, C. P. Historical geography of the British colonies. New York, Oxford, Clarendon Press * Mockler-Ferryman, A. F. British (West Africa) Nigeria. London, New York, Cassell & Co., 1902. 351 p. Pentield. F. C. Present-day Egypt New York, Century Co., 1908. Watt, Sir George. The commercial products of India. New York, E. P. Dutton Co., Africa — General. Gibbons, H. A. The new map of Africa. New York, Century Co., 1916. 508 p. Harris, N. D. Intervention and colonisation in Africa. Boston, Houghton MiHiin & Co., 1914. 884 p. Johnston, Sir H. H. The colonisation of Africa. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1905. The opening up of Africa. New York, H. Holt & Co., 1911. Keltie, Sir John Scott. The partition of Africa. Philadelphia, J. D. Morris & Co., 1907. Eingsley, Mary H. West African studies. New York, Macmillan Co., 1901. French AfrUXk Aubin, Eug&ne. Morocco of to-day. New York, E. P. Dutton Co., 1906. Bernard, Augustin. Le Maroc. Paris, F. Alcan, 1913. Challaye, F^lician. Le Congo Frangals. Paris, F. Alcan. 1909. Congr^s de TAfrique du Nord. 2 vols. Paris, Comit^ d'organisation du Conarte, 1009. An important collection of papers on French North Africa, including Morocco. Demontls, V. Le peuple alg6rien. Alger. Impremerie algerienne, 1906. Ferry, E. Lieut.-Col. La France en Afrique. Paris, A. Colin, 1905. Francois, G. Notre colonic du Dahomey. Paris, R. Larosse, 1906. Gomazo, Gabriel M. La cuestion de Marruecos. 1905. A French translation of this book has been made by de Farges. Paris, 1911. Gonzalez, Mariano G. La penetracion en Marruecos. 1909. Goulven, J. LeMaroc. Paris, 1020. Hamot. Ismael. Les musulmans francals du Nord de TAfrique. Paris, Colin, 1906. Kampffmeyer, Dr. G. Morokko. Halle, A. S. Gebraun-Schwetschke, 1903. Lanessan, J. L. de. La Tunisie. Paris, 1917. Leroy-Beaulieu, Paul. Le Sahara, le Soudan, et les chemins de fer transsahariens 1904. Martin, A. G. P. Les casos sahariennes. Paris, Challamel, 1908. • G6ographle nouvelle de 1* Afrique du Nord. 1912. Piquet, Victor. La colonisation francaise dans TAfrlque du Nord. Paris, A. Colin, 1912. Kene-Lcclerc, Ch. Situation 6conomique du Maroc. Paris, Publications du comity du Maroc, 1905. Ronolet, Louis. L* Afrique occidentale francaise. 1912. Tisseyre-Ananke. L'asslette au buerre coloniale. Paris, 1913. French — General. Balllaud, E. I^ commerce des colonies francals en 1910. Busson, H., Fevre, J., and Hauser, H. Notre empire colonial, 1910. Congr^R Coloniaux Quinquennaux. Paris, M. A. Mllhe-Pontingon, 1910. Important papers on all French colonies. Cunningham, Alfred. The French in Tonkin and South China. London, Sampson Law, Marstou Co., 1902. Tropical Colonigaiion — General. Ireland, Alley nc. Is tropical colonization justifiable? Philadelphia, American Academy of rolitical and Social Science, 1902. • The Far Eastern tropics. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1905. Kidd, Benjamin. The control of the tropics. New York, Macmillan Co., 1892. Norman, Sir H. Peoples and politics of the Far East. London, T. F. Unwin, 1900. Foreign Possessions of the United States. Blackman. W. F. The making of Hawaii. New York, Macmillan Co., 1906. Conant, Cf. A. The United States in the Orient. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1900. Foreman, J. The Philippine Islands. New York, Chas. Scribner'a Sons, 1906. Goodrich, J. K. The coming Hawaii. Chicago, A. C. McClurg, 1914. 280 p. Jones, C. L. The Caribbean interests of the United States. New York, D. Appleton A Co., 1916. 379 J). Kinney, H. W. The island of Hawaii. San Francisco, Hicks. Judd & Co., 1913. Newell, F. H. Hawaii. Washington, D. C, Government Printing office, 1909. WlUoiighbv, W. F. Territories and dependencies of the United States. New York, Cen- tury 'Co., 1905. Worcester, D. C. The Philippine Islands and their people, 1898. GOVERNMENT. 119 MODERN INTERNATIONALISM. By Stanlsy K. Hobnbeck, Associate Professor of Political Science, University of Wisconsin, The term " internationalism " has been found difficult of definition, and its connotation has been Tarlously conceived for the reason that it applies to a relationship which is daal or multiple in its aspects — ^relationships really actual in some piiases, pot^itlal in some others, concrete from certain points of view, abstract from others. Reference to the widely differing efforts of various lexicographers shows that the term is susceptible more readily of description than of definition. Dr. Faries has defined and described it effectively, as fol- lows: Internationalism may be defined to be that cooperation between governments or their citizens which tends to coordinate their efforts toward material better- ment in the interests of the whole social order. Such ♦ ♦ • may be offi- cial ♦ ♦ ♦ or may be unofficial ♦ ♦ ♦. We are warranted * ♦ • In including within internationalism that cooperation of the citizens of various nations which may fall far short of International law. — {The Rise of Inter- nationalism, It-lS,) A reasonably satisfactory short definition appears in Webster's International Dictionary, 1918: ** Internationalism — international organization, influence, or coounon participation." Internationalism has its political manifestations, its economic manifestations, its occupational, its cultural, its social, its humanitarian, and its purely senti- mental manifestations, some formal, some informal, some accidental and scarcely to be observed. Organization, effort, thought, which goes beyond the boundaries of a single national state becomes international; the more con- sciously, deliberately, and widely it goes, the more evidently and conclusively does it belong within the connotation of the term " Internationalism." In presenting this subject to any class, the first problem to be solved is that of orientation; the second is that of establishing limitations. The great dif- ference in the backgrounds of different groups and the unevenness in the prep- aration of the individuals composing any given group challenge the perception and the skill of the instructor. Under ideal conditions there would be, pre- requisite to taking this course, preparation in general history, the principles of economics, the elements of political science, of sociology, and of psychology ; also, highly desirable, a knowledge of comparative government, constitutional law, and international law. This list might be expanded; but, brief as it is, few students will have the point of departure which it suggests, and some will have little knowledge of any of those subjects. In the attempt to treat the subject with due regard to the preparation and needs of the average class and within the time limitations of, say, 30 jaeriods of 50 minutes each, it is desirable to have a definite and formal plan of pro- cedure. To keep the furrows straight and at the same time cover the field within the allotted number of periods, this is absolutely essential. The invi- tation which the subject gives to discursiveness, abstraction, and mere specu- lation must at no point be accepted. The instructor should demonstrate by his arrangement of materials and handling of discussions that the subject Is of vital and practical, not merely academic and cultural. Interest A working outline for such a course, susc^tible of modification, especially of omission, may include the following subjects : I. Introduction and elementary concepts. II. Nations and the family of nations. The growth of social conscious- ness and of political and legal practices. 120 TRAINING TOB FOBBIGN SERVICE. III. The intercoui*8e of states: Diplomacy* eoatet&xceB, congresses, and treaties. IV. International differenoeB and methods of settlement, historical and actual. V. Movements toward and evidences of Cooperation and Organization : A. Deductive Pacifisui — History and Characterization. B. Inductive Pacifism — 1. Task. 2. Agencies and methods. C. International practices. Instruments, and influences — 1. International law. 2. International leagues. 3. International commissions. 4. International alliances. 5. International courts. 6. International arbitration. 7. International unions, official and unofficial. 8. International conferences and congresses, official and un- official. 9. International movoments based on community of inter- est or thought In connection with legislative, economic, scientific, educational, artistic, religious, social, recre- ational, and miscellaneous vocational and avocatloual activitiea ' 10. InternatioBAl influence of financial, commeix^ial, and in- dustrial developments. 11. International influence of the development of means of transportation and communication, migration, travel, dissemination of news, and popular education. VI. Proposed International Instruments (including leagues, feiieratlonSi and a world state), VII. Obstacles and Difficulties. Diversity of languages, race, location, and physical environment VIII. Problems of the Immediate Future. Diplomatic readjustment and set- tlement. Reconstruction — ^political, economic, social, physical, I»sychological, philosophical. No two instructors will adopt identical outlines or employ the same methods of presentation. The following is a possible procedure: At the outset the instructor posts an extensive bibliography, containing references both of a general and of a particular nature; and be distributes syllabi in which there appear under each of the above titles references (a) to required reading, (b) to optional reading, and under some of the headings a series of subtopics and divisions. Kach of the titles becomes the subject of a preliminary lecture. The earlier titles must be treated briefly, from considerations of time and proportion. At each meeting of the class an opportunity is given for asking auestions and for brief discussion. After the eighth lecture a whole period or more is given to extensive quizzing and general discussion. From this point cm, the burden of presentation is thrown more and more upon the students. To ecoaomioe time, certain of the subjects are assigned to individual stodents for special preparation and organized reports, the recitation period assuming somethia^ of the character of a seminar. After the nineteenth title (C. 11) has been dis- posed of, the task of presentation devolves again chiefly upon tiie instructor. Throughout the course It is essential to emphasize the evolutionary aspects of political and social development, to refer constantly to historical examples, to direct and redirect the attention of the student to inherent and fundamental facts. In the problems presented, human nature and human l&stitutioiis are the beginning and the end; they represent what is, and their i)otentialities are the limitations of what may be. The student must learn to distinguish between that which is susceptible of immediate accomplishment and that which can only be achieved or consummated in time — a short period or a long. In GOVERNMENT. 121 no other field has the instructor better opportunity to demonstrate the differ- ence between deductive aud Inductive constructive reasoning, and to show in reference to political problems the futility of mere speculation and benevolence of attitude without substantial knowledge of facts and scientific respect for fundamental considerations. • EBFBRDNCBS. Internationalism. Bibliographies. Claveirole, Jean. LHDternatloDaliBmo. Saint-Etienne, 1910. p. 177-179. Fariee, John C. The rise of internatlonalisin. New York, W. D. Gray, 1916. p. 2B1-266. Hicks, F. C. Internationalism ; a selected list of books, pamphlets, and periodicals. American Association for International Conciliation. New York, March, 11)13. (Pamphlet no. 64.) Krehbiel, K. B. Nationalism, war and society. New York. MacmlUan Co.. 1910. 138- 140 p. Mes, John. Peace literature of the war. American Association 'for International Con- ciliation. Special bulletin. New York, January, 1918. The war and peace problem : Material for the study of international policy. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, February, 1915. World Peace Foundation. Pamphlet scries, vol. Ill, no. 5, part 2, May, 1913. Boston, World Peace Foundation, 1918. (The international library.) Works. Bagehot, Walter. Physics and politics. Now York, IX Applcton & Co., 1902. Baldwin, Simeon K. International conf^resses and conferences of the last century as forces working for the solidarity of the world. A. J. I. L., I., 1007. Barclay, Ifir Thomaa. ** Diplomacy." Encyclopt'dla Brltanuica. Problems of International practice and diplomacy. London and Boston, Boston Book Co., 1907. Brailsford, II. N. The war of steel and gold. New York, Macmlllan Co., 1915. 820 p. Brld^mau, Raymond Ia The first book of world law. Boston, Ginn & Co., 1911. 308 p. World organization. Boston and London. 1905. British bluebook. The treatment of international questions by parliaments in Euro- Sean countries, the United States of America, and Japan. London, 1912. [Cd. 102.1 Brown. Philip M. International realities. Now York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1917. 28S p. Batler. Nicholas M. The international mind. New York, Charles Scribner's Sous, 1913. 121 p. ClaTeirole, Jean. LMnternationalisme. Saint-Btienne, 1910. Crafts, Wilbur F. Internationalism. Washington, International Reform Bureau, 1908. Darby, W. Evans. International tribunals. 4th ed. London, J. M. Dent & Co., 1904. DtiplesBiz, B. L'Organisation Internationale. Paris, 1909. Elikman. P. H. L'internationalisme scit^ntifique. The Hague. 1911. Faries, John C. The rise of internationalism. New York, W. D. Gray, 1915. Higiiiis. A. P. The Hague Peace conferences. New York, Q. P. Putnam's Sons, 1909. 632 p. Hill, David J. World organization and the modern state. New York, Lemcke ft Biichner, 1911. Ilobson. John A. Towards International government. London and New York, Macmlllan Co., 1915. 212 p. Krehbiel, E. B. Nationalism, war and society. New York, Macmlllan Co., 1916. 276 p. Lane, Ralph (Norman Angell, pseud.). The great illusion. New York and London, (t. P. Putnam's Sons, 1913. 416 p. Lawrence, T. J. International problems and Hague conferences. London, 1918. Levermore, Charles. Suggestions for the study of international relations. World Peace Foundation Pamphlet, November, 1913. 283 p. Lrippman, Walter. Tiie stakes of diplomacy. New York, H. Holt ft Co., 1915. 235 p. Lorimer, J. Institutes of the law of nations. 2 vols. Edinburgh and Lomlon, 1883. Mahan, A. T. Armaments and arbitration. New York and London, Harper & Bros., 1012. 260 p. Morris, Robert C. International arbitration and procedure. New Haven, Yale Univer- sity Press, 1911. 288 p. Ralston, J. H. International arbitral law and procedure. Boston, Ginn ft Co.. 1910, Belnsrh. Paul 8. International unions and their administration. A. J. I. L., I., 1907, p. 679-628. International administrative law and national sovereignty. A. J. I. L., Janu- ary, 1909, p. 1-45. Public international unions. Boston and London, Oinn & Co., 1911. 191 p. Scott. J. B. The Hague Peace conferences, 1899 and 1907. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press. 1909. Stowell. K. C. and Munro, H. F. International cases, Boston, New York, and Chicago, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1916. Tnieblood, Benjamin P. The federation of the world. Boston and New York, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1016. Weale, Putnam (B. It. Lennox Simpson, pseud.) The conflict of color. New York, Macmlllan Co., 1910. 341 p. Woolf, L. 8., and the Fabian Society. International government. New York, Brentano, Idle. PART III. MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES. THE TEACHING OF CHINESE AND JAPANESE LANGUAGES. By E. T. WlLLIAMB, Aga99ig Professor of Oriental Languagea and Literature, UniverHty of Oalifomia. The advantage of being able to speak the language of the people with whom one trades is so obvious as scarcely to need mention. American commerce with the Far East began in 1784 with the very beginning of our national history. It is already of great importance, but undoubtedly it is destined to have rapid increase after the war. In the past it has been conducted very largely by the aid of the Chinese compradore, who has been the medium of communication between the American and the Chinese merchants. In the good old days of Salem shipowners and clipper ships, when there was a wide margin between the price paid to the producer or the native merchant and that paid by the consume, the commission of the compradore was not a matter of great concern; he grew rich, but the firm also prospered. In these days, however, of keen competition, the margin of profit is comparatively small, and the firm that can remove unnecessary handicaps will have an advantage. German houses doing business in the Far East began years ago to send out young men to study the languages of the countries in which they were to be located, and through these agents they have been able to come into direct comnranication with native firms. Some American and British companies have followed this example. The Standard Oil Co. has given considerable attention to the matter, and the British American Tobacco Co. has met with enviable success in so training their young men In China. It may not be desirable to get rid altogether of the compradore, especially in certain lines of trade, for he has a wide acquaintance with the merchants with whom it is necessary to deal, and he has the expert knowledge of the conditions of the trade, but the firm that can on occasion be independent of the compradore is by so much in advance of the rival company that is wholly dependent upon him. The stiidy of the Chinese and Japanese languages, however, is not easy, and it is more than doubtfnl that anyone can acqnire a workable knowledge of the colloquial in either tongue without the aid of a teacher. There are, to be sare, pocket vocabularies and phrase books which a traveller will find useful nnd which will enable him to make known his most pressing wants, but to be able to conduct business negotiations, one must have more than this, and that will require him to get the pronunciation from the lips of another. This is e£;pecially true of the Chinese, for the meaning of a syllable In that language changes entirely with a change of the tone in which it is spoken. The mean- ing of the written or printed character can indeed be learned without a knowl- ^ge of the pronunciation, and it is possible therefore for the student to teach himself to read a book or newspaper, but this would be of small advantage without the ability to converse in the language. The tones can not be learned from books. 82186'— 22 9 123 124 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. With Japanese it is different, but there are other difficulties in acquiring that language. The American Government since 1902 has maintained classes of young men at the legation in Peking and at the embassies in Tokyo and Constantinople for the study of the languages of China, Japan, and Turkey. These young men after two years* study at the legation or embassy are sent to the various con- sulates of the United States in the countries mentioned to be assistant inter- preters. Gradually they are advanced in rank and become vice consuls, eonenils, consuls general, and language secretaries at the embassies. The same course is adopted by the British, French, and German Governments. It has been found that a two years' course in the language at Peking or Tokyo enables the student to speak upon ordinary topics with some facility and to translate with the aid of a dictionary the dispatches passing between the American officials and those of the country to which they are accredited. But it is still necessary for them to have the assistance of a Chinese or Japanese writer to insure that their translations from English into Chinese or Japanese are without fault. It would seem advisable, therefore, in introducing the study of these lan- guages into American colleges and universities to require not less than a two years' course in either. The student even then can not expect to acquire facility in speaking, for he can give but a small part of his time to this subject, and he will rarely find anyone with whom to converse. Most of the Chinese in the United States do not speak mandarin Chinese and do not understand it. Numerous textbooks have been prepared for the teaching of Chinese and Japanese. In the British legation at Peking, in the Chinese customs service, and formerly in the American legation the students were required to use the Tsu Erh Chi of Sir Thomas Wade. This is a work in three large volumes, published by Messrs. Kelly & Walsh, of Shanghai, and by W. H. AUen & Co., London. It gives a course in the ^>oken language. For the written language there is a companion volume, known as " The Documentary Series." The students in the American legation at Peking, after some experience with Wade, made trial of Mateer*s " Course of Mandarin Lessons," published by the Presbyterian Mission Press at Shanghai. This on the whole will be found more useful than Wade. This university has been using it in preference to any other available. Two objections lie against it; it is too bulky and was pre- pared primarily for the use of missionaries. It is therefore not so useful as It might be for men preparing for a business career. This latter objection, however, is less important than might appear upon first thought, for one can abridge the lessons and supplement them with books of conversation to be mentioned below. A smaller and less expensive book for beginners in Chinese is Bailer's ** Mandarin Primer," also published by the Presbyterian Mission Press at ShanghaL This, too* is especially {irranged for miasionarie& Other very good books for beginners are those by Sir Walter HUlier and by a former British consul, Bullock. Hillier's has been used to some extent in the American legation at Peking. "An introduction to Mandarin," in Chinese and English, is on sale in Chinese book shops in San Frandaco, and is a good book for begin- ners. It is published in two small volumes^ price $1.50. For a study of the char- acters, a work in two volumes by Dr. Leon Wieger is excellent. It is called " Cliinese Characters," and is published by the Ho Kien Fu Catholic Mission I'ress. The best Chinese-Eng^h dictionaries are those of Giles, published by Kelly & Walsh, Shanghai and Yokohama; and Williams' Syllabic Dictionary, published by the North China Union College, Peking. The English-Chinese dictionary is published by the Chinese Maritime Customs, prepared by K. Hemeling. MODSRK ¥ORB161i LAKGUAQE& 125 No matter with what book one begiiis, it is well to supplement it after a few nM>Dtl&s with the '* Kuan Hua Chih Nan," or " Guide to Mandarin," a book of conversations, pr^[>ared by a Japanese student of Cliinese» and thoroughly Idiomatic. A similar work, which introduces many of the newer teruis and valuable on this account is the '* T*an Lun Hain Plea." This also was prepared in Japan and may be purchased of Messrs, KeUy and Walsh, Yokohama and Shangiiai. The student ought to begin to write the characters at the yery beginning, even while giving his attention chiefly to the colloquiaK At the end of two years he should be able to recognise and to write 3jOOO charactersi. The seconoeumentary Chinese will be found good. A Chinese newspaper is exceUoit for this purpose. The use of particles and the naethod of eoBstructiom are well explained by Birth's "]^iotes on Chinese Documentary Style," Kelly & Walsh, Shanghai. As intimated al>ove, it is not so difficult to teach oneself Japanese as Oiinese. For beginners there are several good books: "A Textbook of Col- loquial Japanese*'* by Dr. Rudolf Lange, published by the MetlMKlist Publishing House, Tolsyo; ''How to Speak Japanese Correctly/' by K. Akada and J. SatoDii, published by R. Z. Okasakiya & Co^, Tokyo; "Plaut'a Conversation Graauaar," Brentano's^ New York and Washington. THE TEACHING OF GERMAN AND DUTCH FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. By Hebmann Almstedt, Bead of Department of Germanie Languaaes, Univeraity of Hi«90Mri. With the (Ovation of the United State* of America into the front rank of a world power cones the grave responsibility of training comprehensively and efficieotly for foreign service. The representatives of this Nation abroad, whether they represent the Government or stand sponsors to great commercial or hiduatr&d enterprlsess should refied honor and credit upon their country. This they can do only if,. t» state a minimum, they are esteemed as on a par hrteilectually, educationaUy, and culturally with those whose interests for the time being are their interests^ and with whom they are expected to communicate and to transact business. Among the educational requirements for really intelligent and successful ftMPpign service a facile knowledge of the language of the foreign country becomes at once a fondamental demand. Without a full control of the Ian- goage, one's understanding of that foreign country is made difficult, if not well- m^ impossible, and thus the function of foreign service is reduced and im- paired. Interpreters and transAationa may become good makeshifts, but he who centred the idiomatic side of the new foredgn language controls the source- head ; and it is this kind of power and control that we wish our foreign repre- sestatives to jMissess and to be able to eicercise. But not only fiNr practical and immediatcty utilitarian purxMxses is it neces- sary that oor foreign representative know fulty the language of the country to which he is asslgnetl. There is, also, a larger and ideal point of yiew with regard to modem language instruction which it behooves us, now that America has left its sphere of parochial isolation, to consider with a feeling of sacred obligation both to onrselves and to the rest of the worM. This larger fnnc- tin of the modern languages is nothing more nor less than its service In estab- lishing international understanding, amity, sympathy, and good will. 126 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. This high ideal of what the modern languages should accomplish was in the minds of the reformers who set about In the eighties to vitalize the modem language instruction and thus save it from the impending fate of being crushed under the heavy weight of classic tradition. If misunderstandings are possible between persons of the same speech, how jnuch greater is the possibility of misunderstanding between persons, or nations, of different speech? And mis- understanding is the mother of all the evils of prejudice, bias, and enmity. It appears, then, that in the large and responsible work of reconstruction, not only of immediately national affairs, but of international relations, the modern languages are called upon to do a service which is at once as prac- tical as it is high and ennobling. Qranted this function of the modem languages in the service of International ideals malting for mutual understanding and friendship, it becomes our bounden duty to encourage the study of the world's modern languages and to raise the standard of instruction in these languages to a high plane of efficiency. Our foreign representatives are entitled to the best instruction that can be given them. What is the best instruction in modem languages for those who i^present this Nation abroad? In a sentence, it is that instruction which makes for the goal of giving the student a comprehensive control of the new speech habits, and does so by using a method which is scientifically and pedagoglcally unas- sailable. At once it is clear that instruction for foreign service does not differ in fundamentals from the instruction for any other kind of service. That is preeminently the point Any language is, at best, a tool which when thoroughly controlled may be easily turned to any kind of service; it may serve as a key to unlock the treasure house of literary values, or it may become a function for practical ends. At any rate, without a thorough mastery of the tool, the function or service of this tool is inadequate. The recognition of this programmatic point of view can only be salutary for the future of modem language instruction. It means that thorough instruction in the language as language shall precede any attempts to use that language in its various and possible functions. The emphasis would not discourage literary values, even at an early stage in the acquisition of the new tongue, but it would insist that correct speech habits be learned and thoroughly mastered. The whole question really is one of time allotment to the various phases of learning and one of emphasis as to what discipline shall precede or follow. The brief limits of this paper can merely state what is in the minds of progressive modern language teachers to-day with regard to how to teach and how to learn a living tongue. Axiomatically expressed it is this injunction: If German, for instance, is a living modern language, then teach it as such. The implication is that every appeal is utilized which makes for the vital acqui- sition and live use of the new speech habits. Not only the eye, but also the ear and the speech organs are called upon in the learning. The progressive view makes more of pronunciation than was done formerly. It frankly uses the foreign tongue in the classroom and urges the student to do so. It tries to teach the language, and not only the grammar. It insists on genuine read- ing of a connected text, and stresses reproductive work in the language itself rather than translation. In short, it makes every sense appeal that it is pos- sible to make and conserves every moment possible for the use of, and drill In, the foreign language to be mastered. Then, too, in a modem language, having MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES* 127 to do with a modern people, the content of texts and paragraphs will deal with matter pertaining to that modern people to-day. That is to say, the cnstomSt habits. Institutions, and general life of the foreign nation will receive attention. In short, when we demand that a modern language shall he heard and spoken in the classroom, we are pleading not for the lingual facilenesa of a waiter or a porter, but for a discipline which more adequately and comprehensiyely than in the past permits us to realize the aim of modem language instruction which is and always will be the acquisition of new speech habits. It is such intensiye training in modern languages that should be placed at the command of our foreign service. We can not afford to do less. The train- ing for modem languages should be begun in the seventh and eighth grades, w^ith full opportunity of election throughout the four years of the high school. Only then can we hope to carry out an Important mission really well and with telling results.^ THE TEACHING OF ROMANCE LANGUAGES. By VicTOB E. FBANgois, Associate Professor of French, College of the City of New York. We take for granted' that for an American student preparing himself for foreign service, French, the language of diplomacy for the last three centuries, is considered indi£^)enBable. For obvious recusons^ Spanish comes a close second in importance, and we are ready to concede that it should take precedence of French in schools of States bordering Mexico, since this plan of studies concerns not only students inta&dlng to enter the foreign service, but also those anxious to pursue a commercial career. Our choice for the third language is Italian, not because Portuguese ' is of less value, but because it is so similar to Spanish that i£ should be easily mastered by students who have a good knowledge of the latter. May we be allowed to point to a few causes of the so much talked of fail- are of foreign language teaching in the United States? There is no denying that there is poor material among teachers of modem languages ; some are trying to teach a subject that they th^nselves have never 'What has be«i said applies, of course, to the teacbing and learning of modern German and modem Dutch, with this comment, that of these two modem Germanic languages, the former is more important and shonid receive the greater emphasis In tbe cnrrlcnlnm. For German, Victor's Deutsches AnssprachewOrterbach, 2d edition, is fandamental in leaming the pronunciation. For training in commercial German the following books may prove helpful : (1) Graham and Oliver, German Commercial Practice connected with the Export and Import Trade, 2 volumes. Vol. I (1904) ; Vol. II (1906). Macmillan, London. (2) Arnold Eutner, Commercial German, 1903, American Book C?o. (8) F. Coverly Smith, Introduction to Commercial German, 1903, Macmillan, London. 'Some time ago a committee of well-known buslnesB men and educators, appointed by the Government of Great Britain to investl^rate the problem of education for those wishing to prepare for foreign trade, recommended that a much greater time be given to the study of Frendi, French being ** by far the most important language in the history of modem civilization." 'A strong plea for the study of French and Portuguese was made by a Brazilian, GUnton D. Smith, before the Edncatlonal Conference on training for foreign service on December 81, 1916. (See BuL 1917, No. 87, pp. 86-86. Department of Interior. Bu. of Edne.) 128 TRAIKING FOK FOREIGN SE&VIGS. been able to master, and the situation is worse now than before the war/ One of tlie greatest difficulties which American educational institutions are facing is to find well quaiifipd teachers of French, Spanish, and Portuj?uesc\ Good teachers of Italian can be found in sufficient numbers, but school authorities are diiinoring for exporieiicetl teachers of Spanish, and a real teacher of I'ortu^^uese is a rara avU. As far as French is concerned, we expect that the problem will soon be solved. Many alumni and alumuse of American col- leges and universities have been in France for one and even two years. We hope that a large number of them will turn to the teaching of the French lan- guage. Tbey can not fall to become inspiring teachers. But the best teacher of modern languages ijs absolutely helpless as long as his classes are as large as they are : 30 to 40. The number of students in any clasfti in tlie department of modern Iauguage»« should not ex<5eed 20. An aver- age o'f 15 should be the rule, if good results are to be expected.* Imagine a piano teacher trying to teach 80 or 40 students simultaneously how to play the piano in a short period varying from 40 to 50 minutes. One minute*s attention to each boy. That is the condition teachers of modem languages are facing every day. Another stumbling block in the path of teachers is the indifferent attitude of the average American student toward his studies. Is it not greatly due to the fact that he has not the least idea of the career he may wish to f oDow later in life? Whether he will pursue this special vocation or not. Is immaterial. His choice of the future profession, even if vague, need not lead to a pre- mature specialization in his studies, as some seem to fear; besitles T>eing an incentive, it would serve as a kind of beacon to guide him through the maze of his college curriculum. Having no (leftnite aim, he gn>pe» his way toward a general education by taking a motley combination of courses which leads. him nowhere. To remedy this defect, a thorough psychological test should be given to every boy before being admitted to a high school, and a r^[>ort sent to his parents or guardian with proper directions as to the kind of studies his mental ability fits him to take most profitably. Another serious drawback is the lack of memorj training in our ^ementary and secondary schools. A boy with a poor memory Will never become a good linguist. Time to be devoted to the preparation of students: Schedule I obtains if a .Innior high school Is available ; Schedule II, if there is no Junior high school ; Schedule III. if no romance language has been studied in the preparatory school. * Spe the Modern Language Jonroftl. March, 1918, p. 284 : " On a motion of Prolefnor Smith, of WiscoDstn. a reffolatlon was paMsed calling attention to tlie very real danger la tliv* fl(>ldfl of French and Spanish dne to the shift of poorly prepared and ussy m pathetic- teacliei'it from other branches, and ezpresalng the aection'R strong dlaapprova) of sucb chanfiT^g being allowed by admin intra tlve officers In colleges and secondary schoola." See Bulletin of High Points, pditcd by Ixiwrpnce A. Wilkins, in ehari^ of modern languages In high sehoola. Board of Sducatlon. of New York Citj, March, 1918. p. 14 : "' A tonclM^r who gives only a portion of hia time to instmrtion in a subject may be calle«l a * fractional ' teacher of tiiat subject. In the ^4 high actaoola there are 61.97 teticlierM of iJerman engaged In giving instruction In some forelsn laacmge otbcr than (vermaii." ^ StH" an article by Henry Zlck in Bulletin of High School Teachers* Association of New York Oify, April, IMC*, p. G: *M yiaited, in all, eig:ht secondary schools in and ont of Tiondon. All tlie schools I Tisited had fo«r excellent features: (1) They lal4 Ktress on a good pronunciation and used sonnd-^^bords ; (2) the work was properly graded; (3) the teachers had a good command of the foreign language, and (4> the classes were small, from 10 to 25 pupils.*' MODBRN FOBBIGN L.4NGUAQBS. SCH£DULB I. JinfiOB High Scitoo:.. 129 First language. First year Second, year 5 periods per week. 5 periods per week. Heor School. First language. Second language. Third language. Fourth language. Third year Fourth year Fifth year aperiods 5 periods 4 periods 3petf8ds 5perio(to 5 periods — 4 periods .... 3periodS — 5 periods 4 periods flizth'ywff 3periods — 5 periods. COLLEOE. Three periods for each laaiciiase throughout.^ SCHEDULE II. High School. ■ First language. Seoond languaga. Third langnaga. Fbartfa hmgoaga. First year Snerfods 5 periods. SeetHMlyear Thirdyear Foarthyear 5pertods — iperiods — 3 periods — & periods 4periods — 3periodfl — 4 periods — 3 periods — COLLBGB. Three periods for each language throughout.* SCUBI>I7I'B III. COLLBOK. First language. Second language. Third language. Fourth language. Fffstysar 5 Dsriods 3 periods. Seoond year Third year Fourth year 5 period i — 3 periods "... 3 periods — 3 periocte 3 periods 3 periodii — 3 periods 3 periods METHODS. SCHIBI>ULB I. JuNiOB High Sci^iool.^ FfTMt lan^wape. f^nt frnw.' Five periods per week. PronuDciation (daily traiaiBg). Descrlptlen of the clasnosm, the school, persoiiB« antmalSr familiar objects, pictures rep^reeenttng stmiite scenes, common actions to bring out important verbs (present indicatiTe, past definite, future). Maps, numbers 1-100; days of the week, seasons, months, dates, weather, time of day, the five senses, games, little songs and short poems to be memorized. 'If three languages are studied instead of four, which is likely, the periods for the Bnt and second languages may be increased to four ; If only two languages are studied, the periods may be increased to five. 'A detailed diescrlptloB of these courses Is given because they are still in the experi- mental stagiB. 130 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. No formal grammar. Emphasis laid on corre^ pronunciation. Mostly oral work, carefully graded. The best teacher should be In charge. If French is the first language, use such simple books as First Tear In French, by Syms (American Book Co.), or First French Book, by J. Greenberg (Charles Merrill Co.), leaving the translation of English exercises for the very end of the year, if at all, or Bercy's books for children (Wm. Jenkins), pictures such as Tableauw Murausp Delmas (Hachette and Co., London). If Spanish is chosen as first language, use such easy books as Worman's Spanish books (American Book Co.). The pictures mentioned above may be used for Spanish as well. Second year: Five periods per weelE. Continuation of the work done during the first year along the same lines. Dally drill in pronunciation. More pictures, more maps, more games, numbers 1—1000; notions of history, geography, arithmetic, fractions, metric systems, etc. ; the three kingdoms of nature, all in the language to be learned. A very easy reader, with a commercial bias if possible. Rudiments of the grammar taught froni the reading. Oral exercises of all Mnds also based on that textbook. Very little transla^ tion of the foreign language Into English should be done except to show the pupils hoi7 to go about it. No literal translation should be allowed. Frequent dictations of short sentences, of short stories. Songs, short stories, or short poems memorized. High-School Cocrsbs. Third and fourth years: In the third and fourth years (respectively the first and second years in attendance) graduates of a Junior high school should be able to do the work that is done at present during the first three years in a first-class high school. Any method suiting the individuality of the teacher and leading on the part of the pupils to thorough work and self expression should be encouraged. Whatever may be the method, the teacher should adhere to the motto : A minimum of grammatical rules and translation, and a maximum of oral work. If formal grammar is started, it should proceed slowly, with special stress on funda- mental principles and constant drill on verbs. Translation of the foreign language into Eoaglish should be done only in the case of difficult passages and idioms. A careful selection of the texts on which to base the lessons will minimize that Isind of work. Translation of English into the foreign language should be attempted. If at all, only toward the end of the first year as review work. Later on easy composition may be used. Teachers may ease their work by using textbooks provided with exercises giving material for drill work along up-to-date lines. In the program of the first three years of high schools, books with commercial tendencies are seldom read. To fill that want, numerous dictations on the country, the language of which is learned, its climate, customs, dally life, government, general industry, commerce, etc., should be given. Proverbs and easy idiomatic sentences should be memorized. Fifth and sia^h years: So far academic and commercial courses can go hand in hand with a commercial flavor if the majority of students are preparing for a business career. Now the work should be somewhat specialized and commercial textbooks put Into the hands of the pupils, with the same methods as described above prevailing. Constant oral work, much dictation by the teacher or leading pupils, a minimum of translation of the foreign language into English, etc. From now on one hour per week should be set aside for the reading of an easy text or newspaper in the first language at sight, a student reading aloud one paragraph at a time, the teacher translating or better explaining the words unfamiliar to the class, and a second student summing up the paragraph in the language taught. Reading at sight should start for the second language at the beginning of the sixth year. This kind of work increases the confidence of the scholars and encourages independent reeding. They should also be urged to avail themselves of every occasion to improve their practical knowledge of the language in which they are interested : (a) An exchange of letters with youths of their age abroad; (b) participation in a foreign language club; (c) use of a dictionary purely French or Spanish ; (d) sermons, lecfures, plays, news- papers, and reviews in the foreign language ; (e) acquaintance with people speaking that language, etc. FBENCH. Fifth\ year. Notions de commerce, by Coudray and Cuxax (H. Dunod — E. Tinat, 6ditcur8, 47, Quat des Grands Augustins, Paris). EUmcnis de commerce et de comptaJ)iHtS, par Gabriel Faure (Masson et Cie, 6ditears 120, boulevard St. Germain, Paris). MODEBK FOKBIGN LANGUAGES. 131 At sight. Edition hehdomadaire du Courrier dea EtatsUnia, New York City, or Le Petit Journal, published by Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N. Y. Si^h year. French Commercial Practice (II parts), by Graham and Oliver (Macmillan & Co., London). At sight. La France qui travaiUe, by Jago (D. C. Heath & Co., Boston). or Revue commeroiale et induBtrielle franco-am^ricaine, published by Le Courrier des Eftats-Unis, New York City. SPANISH. • Fifth year (if first language). Harrison's Spanish Correspondence (Henry Holt & Co., New York City). McHale's Commercial Spanish (D. C. Heath & Co., Boston). At sight. Albes: Viajando por Sud America edited by Warshaw (Henry Holt & Co., New York City), or El Eco (Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N. Y.). Dictionary: PequeHo Larousse ilustrado (Larousse, Paris). Siwth year. Spanish Commercial Correspondence by Whittem and Andrade (D. C. Heath & Co., Boston). Fuentes and Ellas: Manual de Correspondencia (Macmillan Co., New York City). At sight: Nelson's The Spanish American Reader (D. C. Heath & Co., Boston). ^ or La Prensa (daily) New York City. Collbgh. On entering college after six consecutive years of the first language students should be able to speak it fluently and correctly and to write it idiomatically. So college courses should be looked upon as seminar work, aiming at retaining and Improving the grasp of the language learnt in the previous years." Such courses should be conducted entirely in the foreign language and based on tech- nical publications, such as foreign consular reports, reports of foreign touring clubs and chambers of commerce, commercial and industrial reviews, the bulletins (Spanish and Portuguese) of the Pan American Union, etc., with one hour per week entirely devoted to sight reading. Higher institutions should create for such students a special atmosphere that would replace, in part only of course, a sojourn abroad. A large room should be set aside for them where they would constantly meet other young men interested in similar studies, and find a library answering their needs, foreign newspapers and periodicals of all kinds, a miniature museum displaying ipdustrial, mining, vegetable products, etc., with their names in several languages, various wall maps, lantern slides or moving pictures showing the dally life, industry, commerce, natural beauties, etc., of foreign lands, the scenes being explained in the foreign language or forming topics for general discussion, round table conferences, frequent lectures, games, a phonograph .with records of foreign Bongs, etc. This environment, artificial, it is true, but indispensable, could be more thorough by the cooperation of the departments of history, geography, mathematics, economics, law, etc., in using foreign textbooks In their elective courses. Students should be urged to visit during their summer vacations the country the language of which they are studying. Scholarships for such trips might be offered by the Federal Government or the colleges through competitive examinations. Au^liary languages (i. e., third and fourth languages). — The methods and directions given for the first and second languages should be followed, but the class would be able to proceed at a much faster pace. Schedule II (high school and college). — See methods and directions for Schedule I, hot the work would necessarily be slower, especially during the first two years. ■ If students preparing for foreign service are not numerous enough to form a sec Hon by themselves, they nmy follow advanced literary courses, but special courses should be given them during their Junior and senior years. 132 TRAINING FOB POSRI6N SfiSYICE. SchediOe III {oolleffe . C, Portuguese text. Portuguese offlcial reports and bQlletim. Revista de Commerclo, Llsboa, Portugal. UniAo portuguesa (weekly). San Francisco. THE TEACHING OF SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES. By Gislb Bothne. He9d, Department of Soandimovien LanffuotffeB, University ef Minnee^t^ One result of our country's participation in tile ?reat workl straggle will be the demand for an improyed and intenslTe study of modern langiiages ta our educational Institutions. If any country ever had the call to assume an* strive to maintain leadership among the nntions, not only politically and com- mercially, but also in almost all fields of human activity, that certainly has come to our country. In order to trade most intelligeBtly and profitably with other peoples, and In general to deal with them tn a spirit of sympathy and understanding of their peculiarities and characteristics, it is necessary to have that Intimate knowleilge which only the knowledge of their language can give. And we shall want to maintain lueiieefortb moet intliiiAte relatioiis with the MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES. 133 nations of the world. Already £zMi;land and France are rearranging and ampli- fying their school courses for the purpose of giving the foreign languages a much more prominent place than before. And the Scandinavian languages have not been overlooked. England established during the recent war lecture- ships in the Scandinavian languages at the University of Tendon and other places; and France, in addition to a professorship in the Scandinavian lan- guages at the University of Paris previously established, invited boys from the Scandinavian countries to come to her schools in order to get a thorough training in French, in addition to the subjects required by the corresponding schools at home. The schools and ctrileges of our country have given excellent instruction in modem languages in the years gone by, but much more will be demanded in this line in order to fit our young men and women for foreign service. The languages for which there will be the greatest demand will undoubtedly be French, German, Spanish, Russian, Italian. But also other languages will be taught, among them the Scandinavian. The Scandinavian languages com- prise Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish. While philologists will continue to cultivate the study of Icelandic, which in its modem form ig spoken by some 100.000 people, the other modern Scandinavian languages have much added ▼aloe in modem times. These languages are spoken by 12 millions who belong to the most enlightened people In Europe. While the three languages are dis- tinct knowledge of one will make the effort to acquire the other two compara- tively easy. The granunar of Norwegian and Danish is somewhat simpler than Swedish, but the student may start with any one of them as he has the oppor- tnnity, and a little practice and effort will help him to Ier in German, keeps increaslBg, rather than decrea«tng, in successii^ years, and the unlimited power of word derivations from a liinited basic ▼ocabolary, which is characteristic of the Slavic languages, make them the most fascinating as well as the eaMest for direct use in basiBess or science. The Slavic languages, especially Busflian, have but one norm for all purposes, whether literature, science, or business. After a two years' course one should be able to correspond, with the help of the dictionary and letter writer, oks eoa- ■tricted and adapted largely with the object in yiew: Bondar. Simplified Russiaa method. London, Efflngbam WUson, 1915. Bondar'M RuAslan readers, Nob. 1-5. publi.«5hp(l by same firm, may bo used shortly after b^^anlnis the grammat'. S^Kkei, Neyyie. Buaaian f^raaoHiar. Oxford, Clarendon Frees. Sarracby-Kmlth. Lessons in Bus8iao. London, S. Low, Marston &. Co., 1M5. A key to the exerefaes of this gramiaar is also ^aUlabed by the tame puUiaber. 138 TRAINING FOR FOBEIGN SERVICE. Magnus, L. A. A concise grammar of the Rnasian language. London, J. Murraj^ 1916. ManasoYich, Boris. A Russian manual for self-tuition. London. Keioin Paul, Trench, Trfibner & Co., 1915. Motti, Pietro. Russian conversation grammar. lK>ndon, D. Nutt. Rappoport, S. Hossfeld's new practical method for learning the Russian language. London, Hirschfeld Bros., 1916. Rlola. Henry. How to learn RussUln. Based upon the Ollendorfflan system and adapted for self-instruction. London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co. It is advisable for self -study to purchase the key to the exercises of RIola's gram- mar. This key is published by the same firm. Russian grammar simplified. Published by Hugo's Institute for Teaching Foreign Languasies. Russian reaaing made easy. Published by Hugo's Institute, etc. May be used soon after beginning the grammar. Solomonoff, J. Russian composition. Parts I, II, and III. London, Kegan Paul, Trench, TrQbner & Co., 1916. Mr. Solomonoff is Instructor in the London County Council evening commercial Institutes. ■ The serious student of Russian will find it advisable to buy early in the study of the language a simple dictionary. The Russian dictionary, by A. Wassilleff in the Langham series, published by Charles Scribner*s Sons, contains the usual words with their pro- nunciation figured. David McKay, Philadelphia, publishes Hill's Vest-pocket English- Russian dictionary. W. J. Hernan, New Tork City, publishes a small phrase book of about 50 pages — ^What you want to say and how to say it in Russian. IMPORTANCE OF TURKISH AND ARMENIAN LANGUAGES FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. By Abraham Yohannan. TUAKISH. Turkish was the lan^age of one of the greatest countries in Europe and Asia during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. A power which once in- fluenced half the world, it overthrew and established empires, usurped the thrones of Persia, Arabia, Egypt, and Greece, and was dreaded by Italy, France, and Germany. Even now the Turkish language is spoken by millions of people belonging to a vast empire, and is more or less used in official circles from Tunis in Africa to the walls of China. It is the court language of western Persia ; and in many provinces of south Russia and Afghanistan it is spoken as nmch as Persian. There are at least 25 written languages used In the Ottoman Empire, yet in spite of this babel of tongues, which is found chiefly at Con- stantinople, the strong individuality of the Turk has manifested itself in politics and government. It is a regrettable fact that such a language has hitherto received little or no attention in America. The complete Ignorance of it on the part of our countrymen has, from time to time, greatly impeded proper communication and intercourse between the two nations and given rise to most serious misunder- standings and difficulties in diplomatic as well as commercial affairs. A prac- tical knowledge of the Turkish language is a requisite of diplomatic and com- mercial relations with the Ottoman Empire. It is essential in conducting the export trade of this country with the Mohammedan world, and in unfolding the treasures of modern science to the population. It is expected that in the development of international relations there will in all probability result a closer connection between Turkey and the United States, and a growth of mutual interest. The secret of the success of certain European nations who gained prestige in dealing with the Turks, as well as with oth6r orientals, lies in the fact that they learned their languages, adopted their customs, wore their costumes, and learned their mode of living; hence, they gained an Intimate knowledge of their character, their needs, and re- quirements, and dealt with them accordingly. European manufacturers, for Instance, understood perfectly the kind and style of goods and articles that were generally used by the orientals, and they supplied articles in that style, thoagh it seems in many cases to be very clumsy and unwieldy to westerners. Barter- ing with a Turk is a complicated process and very vexatious, especially to one MODERK FOREIGN LANGUAGES. 139 who does not speak his langaage and know his habits. Scarcdy a shopkeeper makes even a pretense of having a fixed price. He asks more than he expects^ allowing a wide margin for dickering. If he slionld get what he asked, he would regret that he did not ask more. We must lose no opportunity to place ourselves in dose communication both with the governing Ottoman element and with the numerous races subject to its sway. ^ile it is true that English-speaking interpreters are available in the prin- cipal centers, yet it is infinitely preferable to conduct negotiations of any kind directly, rather than by means of intermediaries of doubtful accuracy. And in the smaller towns it is practically impossible to find persons with sufficient command of English to render them suitable as interpreters. Furthermore, it Is important for commercial enterprises to be able to prepare information and catalogues and lists in Turkish, since English is understood only by an In- finitesimal part of the population. A system of courses should be established by colleges and universities, de- signed to prepare students for foreign service in Turkey, either in the service of the United States Government, in business enterprises, or in scientific in- vestigations. The courses thus offered should aim to make the students familiar with the general subjects required for successful work in Turkey, to enable them by means of this knowledge to gain quick mastery of general problems that preset themselves in various occupations. The courses should also in- clude something of the customs, history, beliefs etc., of the country, to develop a sympathetic understanding of the people, and to enable one to avoid giving offense through ignorance of prejudices or superstitions. The Turkish language is of Tartar origin, a member of Ural-Altaic family, dominated by the law of vowel harmony and agglutination. Turkish has ad- mitted a large number of Arabic and Persian words, grammatical forms, and even entire sentences. It is best coordinated with the study of Arabic or Persian, from which languages the great bulk of its vast vocabulary is drawn. For this reason the study of Turkish presents unusual difficulties to anyone not acquainted with some oriental language, and for the same reason it should not be introduced too early in a college course. The course should be framed for graduate students, but should also be open to specially qualified students who have not completed the full collie course and to those who have had con- siderable linguistic training. The succesBful completion of the courses offered will normally occupy three years in the case of candidates for diplomatic service and two years for those who prepare for commercial or other foreign service. In each case two hours per week will be sufficient. After a i^eliminary survey of the grammar it is best to take up at once the reading of easy texts, the details of the grammar being explained as they are exemplified. REFERB>NCBS. Tlagnpian, V. II. Ottoman-Turkish conversation grammar. London, 1907. JelUitsctaka, Henry. TOrkiache Konversations-gnrammatlk. Heidelberg, 1895. MdUer, Angust. TQrklBche grammatik. Mit Paradigmen, Litterature Cbrestomathie und Glossar. (Classical.) Berlin, 1889. Redhoase, Bir James W. A Turkish and English lexicon. Constantinople, 1890. • A lexicon, Bhigllsh and Turkish. London, 1861. ' A simplified grammar of the Ottoman-Turkish language. London, 1884. Thlmm^C. A. Turkish self-taught. London, 1905. With Bnglish phonetic pronunciation, containing vocabularies, elementary gram- mar» idiomatic phrases and conyersations, English and Turkish dictionary, money, weights, and measures. Tien, Rev. Anton. A Turkish grammar. London, 1896. ARMENIAN. The Study of Armenian is made difficult by the alphabet, which closely re- sembles that of no other language, and by the fact that, although it is an Indo- 82186*— 22 ^10 140 rRAINING FOB FOBEIGK SERVICE. Bozopean language^ tbe woxds seem totally qnfamtUar to the learner. For this reusou it sliould uot be introduced too early in a college coarse, but rather i*eserved for nioi'e mature students or those who have had considerable linguistic training. There is no subject related so closely as to be coordinated with special advantage. Before taking up the reading of texts, considerable atten- tion must be paid to the grammar, the d^;ail8 of which are of course taken up in connection with Uie reading of texts. To ol>tain results of any practical value the course must extend over not less than two yeara A purely conversati(Mial method does not give a proper conunand of the language* but conversation- exercises can be introduced to advantage in the second year's work. BBFBRENCES. Aucher, Father Paschal. A dictionary* £nglish-Armenian and Armenlan-Bnelish. 2 vola. Venice, 1821. Bedrosslan, Rev. M. New dictionary, Armenian-EngLisli. VeaLce. 1875-187$^. Cbakmakjian, H. U. Armeno- American letter writer. Boston, E. A. Yeran, 1914. Oaliau, K. H. Elementary modern Armenian grammar. London and New York, 1902. Petermann, Jul. Henr. Porta linguarum orlentalom, brevis linguae Armeniacae. Leinsic. 1872. (Classical.) Terau, £«. A. Armenian-English conversatiMi. Boston, Yeran Press, 19X8. PART IV. PERIODICAL LITERATURE. USE OF PERIODICALS IN EDUCATION FOR FOREIGN TRADE SERVICE. With Bibiioinmphiefi of Periodicalfl and Periodical Articles. By John Cotton Dana, lAlMrmriim Fret Public lAbrary of Netcark, X. J. It seemed quite simile to compile a list of periodical references which might be foimd nsefal in training for foreign trade and ccmsnlar service, but as we investigated the subject we discovered three things: That such a list printed tills week would be out of date the next ; that any given list to be useful must, above everything else, be up to date ; and that tlie value of rieriodlcals in train- ing for foreign service was far greater than we had supposed it would be. We, therefore, decidefl to give the results of our investigation in this field, feel- ing that it might prove useful to know how we arrived at our conclusions. Our first search for articles on the subject in general was met, not unexpect- edly, by a dearth of material. The papers and reports in English, Spanish, and Portuguese contained in the Pan American Scientific Congress Proceedings for 1915, the abstracts of these papers in the r^wrt on the commercial education subsection of this congress by Glen Levin Swlggett (Bur. Bduca. Bui., 1916, No. 25), and those given in Dr. Swiggett's "Conference on Training for For- eign Service" (Bur. of Educa. Bui., 1917, No. 87), none of which are to he classed strictly as periodical references, were the only ones having construe- tive tendency. Other leads ended in expressions of opinion that such special- ized training did not, but should, exist In some standardized and adequate form.' Turning to the Individual subjects requisite in a course on foreign trade, wo found an abundance of material on the subjects themselves, with little on methods of teaching the use of it. During the last four years articles by the thousands have appeared, all or any of which might be suitable for collateral reading, but with little or no measure of their permanent, ephemeral, or com- parative worth without an expendltiire of much time in going through the mass critically. For it must be understood that the usual factors In discrimination do not hold in this instance and that ordinary processes of selection on authori- tative grounds can not be consistently followed. That what a certain author writes or a certain magazine publishes on a given subject should be worth attention Is ordinarily a workable rule for sifting references previous to exami- nation of material. In modem business, facts take precedence of authorities, information Is not valued for its verbal dress, and timeliness outweighs prestige. It is of small benefit to learn a noted jurist's exposition of a law if to-day's newspaper gives an inch of space to Its amendment or repeal. This Is espe- cially true just now, since war action is annulling the past, unstabllizlng the present, and promising for the future perinanent change. Nor Is length a factor ^Slnee the above was wrttteo, certain other artlclee have appeared which are glren in toe references. 141 142 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SBRVICB. in determining value. To reject for brevity, a correct procedure in other cases^ becomes here arbitrary and unwise. For example, that an American chamber of commerce for Spain has begun active work may be the most Important item in the " World's Markets " for June, while almost every article in suc- cessive issues of " The Americas," * altliough short and generally unsigned, could be used, as could each article in the department of international banking and finance of the "Bankers' Magazine." This applies to all the subjects except three, which touch the historical element in commerce, government, and law» and find their best treatment in books. Hence fact, recent and timely, seems the criterion for periodical valuation* To recognize this makes clear the inadequacy of any bibliography of articles. It is inclusion, not selection, that Is needed here, a continuous inclusion of all that may be useful (accompanied by a continuous rejection of what ha» passed its usefulness), continually collected, or, to use the librarian's technical word, cumulated, to date. No fixed list, however carefully approved at its Iirinting, can do this. Daily its items become out of date, and their retention, which gives them a false importance, becomes an obstruction. Then, also, a really representative list would appall by the number of its items, although a short one chosen to show the sort of thing that may be found, and understood to be of intrinsic value only at the date of printing, may serve a useful pur- pose. Such a list we have prepared and appended. There are two ways, one direct and one through bibliographic aids, that offer a feasible solution of how periodical literature may be used here to the best advantage. The first is the obvious one of seeing the magazines themselves. We give a selected list of the most suitable, slightly annotated and roughly classed. An arrangement of periodicals under the numerous headings chosen for the list of articles would, of course, mean frequent repetition of titles. But the problem of inclusion may be more nearly solved, we believe, by sup- plementing direct use of periodicals with that of some such aid as is given In the Standard Dally Trade Service, published by the Standard Statistics Com- pany, 47 West Street, New York City, at a subscription price of $120 a year. This is a combined digest and Index to newspaper, periodical, and other sources of basic exporting information, supplying current news and forecasts in full. It consists of daily issues not exceeding 8 pages in length, for insertion In a loose-leaf binder, a monthly index whose every second issue covers the last two months; weekly tables and graphs of trade and financial figures of the United States for a period of 15 years. A i>ersonal service to subscribers is also furnisheil without additional cost. This service gives full digests and excerpts of articles in newspapers, some 88 trade periodicals, and Government publications of the United States, Europe, Latin America, and the Far East; digests of legislative bills, procla- mations, and other documents, and much direct Information from Its bureaus in Washington and Paris, the former keeping in such close touch with all governmental activity as to furnish within 24 hours data regarding legis- lation, court decisions, Federal Departments, boards and commissions, the Pan American Union, and similar organizations, and the latter supplying similar European information from two to four weeks earlier than It would otherwise reach the United States. French, Russian, Spanish, and Portuguese publica- tions also are translated and digested. Subjects such as trade relations of countries, commercial products, exx>ort and import legislation and regulation, financial legislation and conditions, credits, international banking and exchange, foreign transportation facilities and projects, foreign commercial development, * Publication now ceased. PERIODICAL LITBRATTJRE. 143 shipping, marine insarance, and patent laws and their Interpretation, are treated in themselves and many of them also as subdivisions under country and locality. It seems to us that this short cut to current foreign commercial informa- tion could be used to distinct advantage by instructors and students. Also useful is the foreign trade section of the Prentice-Hall Business Digest Service, published by the Prentice-Hall Inc., 70 Fifth Ave., New York City; subscription, with quarterly cumulations, $30. This weekly digests all the articles of certain business periodicals and certain articles of more general magazines. This service is primarily an index-digest to periodical articles, while the Standard Daily Trade is primarily a news purveyor and forecaster. REFERENCES. A&TICLBS ON TRAINING FOR FOBEION TKADI. Arnold, Jalean. Training Americans to know Asia. Commerce reports, No. 166, July 17, 1919. p. 354-69. Ayer, W. P. F. Selection and trainins: of foreign salesmen. National foreign trade council. Official report, 1920. p. 697-609. Bevan, R. H. International education of world statesmen. Education, 40 : 463-69, AprU, 1920. Business training corporation. New foreign trade. New York, 185 Madison Ave. 62 p. Illus. Cooper, C. S. Laying foreign trade foundations : What a few large coxporatlons are doing in the way of training their employees for foreign trade. Kxport Trade and Exporters' Review, May, 1921, p. 5-8. Practical aspects of foreign trade training: Further examples Illustrating the strategic value of adequate preparation. Export Trade and Exporters' Review, May 28, 1921, p. 124. Course of practical training for foreign trade executives. Americas, 5 : 27-30, January, 1919. Dellass, J. A. Commercial education for foreign trade : Fundamentals in foreign trade foreign trade education. National Foreign Trade Council. Official report, 1921, p. 47-78. Delgado, D. E. Export technique: Job analysis of an exporting house. Also O'Hara, J. F. Cultural equipment for foreign trade ; MacElwoe, R. S., Vocational educa- tion for the business of exporting, with discussion. National Foreign Trade Council. Official report, 1919, p. 96-133. Harris, Garrard. Vocational education for foreign trade. Vocational Summary, 1 : 16-16, February, 1919. Innovations and recent progress in vocational education for foreign trade and shipping. Commerce reports. No. 40, Feb. 17, 1919, p. 758. MacClintock, S. Training for foreign commerce. Pan-American Magazine, 29 : 219-20» August, 1919. McCrea, R. C. Commercial training for the consular service. Columbia University Quarterly, 21 : 278-83, October, 1919. HacElwee, R. S. Foreign trade education ; a review of the progress along educational lines made during the past two years ; School of foreign service at Georgetown University and what it has accomplished. World's Markets, March, 1921, p. 25-28. : Spirit of cooperation ; recent important developments in education for foreign • trade and shipping. Vocational Summary, 1 : 6-0, November, 1918. Vocational education for the business of exporting. Also Yanes, F. J. Edu- cation in relation to Pan-American trade. Pan-American Union. Pan-American Commerce, 1919, p. 868-78. *- Vocational education for the business of exporting. Commerce reports. No. 118. May 20. 1919, p. 914-21. and Nichols. P. G. Training for foreign trade. Washington, D. C^ Govern- ment Printing Office. 195 p. ( U. S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Miscellaneous series. No. 97:) National Aasociatlon of Corporation Training. Committee on Training for Foreign Commerce. Training for foreign commerce ; with discussion. Proceedings, 1921, p. 242-322. New school of foreign trade. Pan-American Magazine, 32 : 216, March, 1921. Course offered at William and Mary College, Williamsburg, Va. Snider. G. B. Education for foreign trade. National Marine, 13 : 2.3-25, June, 1919. "Study of foreign trade; what the universities offer. World's Markets, Sept., 1920, p. Swlggett, G. I* Commercial education in preparation for foreign service. In National Educational Association Proceedings, 1918, p. 238-40. Educational preparation for foreign service. In Proceedings of National For- eign Trade Council. 1918. New eept. of Commerce. Obtainable from the Superintendent of Documents, WtiKhington, D. C. Subscription $S. The first source for exporting news ; containing information mailed and cabled by our consuls, attaches, and aeents abroad. Exporter's Review, monthly. Published by Exporter's Encyclopedia Co^ N. Y. Sub- scription $3. Lists foreign trade opportunities. Journal of Accountancy, monthly. Published by Journal of Aceountancy, N. Y. Subscrip- tion $4. Best accounting periodical. Marine News, monthly. Published by N. T. Marine News Co., N. Y. Subscription $3. Gives a pago or more to tho news of each American port, shipyard information, marine Insurance notes, and lists new maritime incorporations and occ^n freights and charters. The Nation's Business, monthly. Published by the Chamber of Commerce of the Unitod States, Washington, D. C. Subscription $3. Official magazine of the National Chamber of Commerce. The Nautical Gazette, weekly. Published by the Nautical Gazette, 20 Vesey St., N. Y. Subscription $4. An international newspaper. Page given to foreign trade and another to nmrine insurance. Port development. Short unsigned articles. Printer's Ink, weekly. A Journal for advertisern. Published by Printer's Ink Pub. i'o., 18.5 Madison Ave., N. Y. Subsi^ptlon $3. Oldest and foremost of advertising magazines. System. Published by A. W. Shaw. Co., Chicago. Subscription $8. Often the first to treat new subjects though generally in a cursory way. The World's Markets, monthly. Published by R. <». Dun & Co., The Mercantile Agency. 200 Broadway, N. Y. $2.50. A journal of information for all who are engaged In International trade. Cotntneraial and Financial Conditions in Foreign Countries. Baltic Review, monthly. Published at 120A King's Road, Chelsea, London. 8. W. 3. Subscription £1. Board of Trade Journal and Commercial Gazette (English), weekly. Published by His Majesty's Stationary Office, Imperial House, Klngsway, London. 6d. per Issue. Divisions on customs regulations and tariff changes, domestic and foreign. Imperial and foreign trade. Government notices affecting trade, and trade statistics. Bulletin of the Pan-American Union, monthly. Published by the l»an Amorlrnn Tnlon, 17th and B Sts., NW., Washington, D. C. Subscription $2.50. Commerce Monthly. Published by National Bank of Commerce, New York City. Free. Eastern Commerce, monthly. Published at 25 Water St., Yokohama. Subscription $5. Foroi«n Trade Bulletin, bimonthly. Issued by the Foreign Trade Bureau of the American Rxpress Co.. 66 Broadway. N. Y. Free on request. A folder giving brief notes on regulations affecting shipping. Japanese-American Commercial Weekly. Published at 414 8th Ave., New York City. Subscription $2. Lloyds Bank Monthly ; a survey of International trade conditions. PubUshed at 71 Lom> bard St., B. C. 3 I^ondon. Mexico, Financial and Commercial, semi-monthly. Published by Criterion Publlshlufc Syndicate Inc., 15 Park Row. New York City. Subscription $2. Poland, monthly. Published by American Polish Chamber or Commerce and Industry Inc., Ury^ Third Ave., New York City. Subscription $2. PollHh Economic Bulletin, monthly. Publhshed by Siounlon Ltd., 123 Cannon St., E. C. 4 London. Subscription £1. P£RK)I>ICAI^ LI'IBAATUKB. 145 Review of American Chamber of Commerce In France, Inc., Mml-monthly. Puhlished by Amerlcaji Chamber of Commerce in France, Inc., S2 Rue Taltbout, Paris, iiubacrlp- tlon 25fr. Russian Economic Bulletin. Published by Amoricnn-Ru.ssian Chamber of Commerce, Woolworth BoUdlns, New Yorli City. Suhacription $1. The South American : a Journal for all interested In Latin American affairs, monthly. Published by The South American Pub. Co., 310 Lexington Ave., N. Y. Subscrip- tion $3. The South American Journal and Brazil and River Plate Mail, weekly (English). Pub- lished at 309 Dashwood Hoose, New Broad St., K. C. 2, London. 9d. the isaue. Standard Bank of South Africa, Ltd., monthly. Obtainable at 68 Wall St., New York City. Free. The Statist, weekly. Published at 51 Cannon St.. E. C. 4. London. 6d. the issue. Swedish-American Trade Journal, montlily. Swedish- American Chamber of Commerce of the U. S. A., 2 Broadway, New York City. Subscription $1. The Times : Imperial and F»relsn Trade Supplement, monthly. Publisiied by the Times, Printing House Sq.. London, £}. C. 4. Subscription 3a. Trans-Pacific, monthly. Published by B. W. Pleisher, Tokyo. New York office, 1 W. 54th St. Subscription $6. ItU9mation4d Law and Economic PoHciee. American Economic Review, monthly. Published by American Economic AssoeiatioB, St. Albana Tt. Subscription $5. Most valuable here for its section of abstracts from foreign and American periodicalB arranged under subjects. Reviews new books and documents also by class. American Journal of International Law. Published by the Oxford University Press 35 W. 32d St.. N. Y. Subscription S5. Quarterly number^ give bibliography of public documents relating: to international law. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Published by the Academy of Political and Sodal Science, 89th St. and Woodland Ave., Phila. Sub- scription $5. Articles in scholarly form treated at length by authorities. International Law Notes, monthly. Published in London, ohtainable from Baker, Voorliia ft Co., N. T. Subscription 9s. 6d. Particularly full on private InternatioBal law. Joomal of Political Economy, monthly. Published by the TTnlyersitj of Chicago Press, Chicago. Subscription J4. Mniards Review of the Far East, weekly. Published by Hie Millard Pub. Co., 113 Avenue Edward VII, Shanghai, China. Subscription |10. Covers commercial and political conditions. North American Review, monthly. Published at 9 E. 87th St, N. Y. Subscription ^6. Political Science Quarterly. Published by the Academy of Political Science, Columbia University* N. Y. Subscription $5, indodlng suppieraent. World's Work, monthly. Published by Doohleday, Page ft Co., Garden City, N. Y. Sub^ acription $4. Popular bat aee«rate commercial, politlcai, and ecoaomic news. Industries, Oeographp, Commodities. American Exporter, monthly. Published by American Exporter, N. Y. Subscription $3. Demoted hundy to American export eammoditles. Rous a page on olBce equip- ment. Also editions in Spanish. French, and Portuguese. American IitduaUiea, menthlj. Published for the National Association of Manufactarora, 30 Church St., N. Y. Subscription %1. Not confined to the United States. Export trade and trade acceptances depart- ments. Aaia, monthly. Published by the Asia Pvb. Co., 627 Lexington Ave., N. Y. 8ubscrip> tlon $3.50. Jonraal of Ameriean Asiatic Assodatioa. Commercial America, monthlv. Published by the Plillftdelphia Commercial Museum for free drcolatlon, mainly In Latin American conntries, for the purpose of carrying to buyers reliable information concerning American manufacturers. This museum, supported principally by public funds, is occixpied solely in fostering doeer oomaserclal rmtions between the United States and other countries. I>i]n's Review, international edition, monthly. Publisiied Iqr R. O. Dun ft Co., the Mer- cantile Afpency, 290 Broadway, N. Y. Subscription $3. lUustrated articles on international Industries only. Export American Indoatrtes, monthly. Published for the National Association of Manu- fsctvrera, of which it is the organ, 80 Church St., N. Y. SubscriptloB &3. Cleographical Review, quarterly. Published bv the American Qeographical Society, 15th St. and Broadway, N. Y. Subscription $5. Rpviews books, papers and magasine articles in its monthly numbers. La Hacienda, monthly. Published at Buffalo, N. Y. Subscription $3.60. Re vista mensual ilustrada sobre agricultura, fmnaderia e industrias rurales. Journal of Geography, monthly. Published at Menosha, Wisconsin. Subscription $1. Elementary but suggestive articles on geographic and Industrial subjects for National Geographic Magazine, monthly. Published by the National Geographic Society, WasblsgtoD, D. C. Subscription $8.50. Statistics of Commerce. International Crop Report and Agricultural Statistics, monthly. Published by the Inter- national Institution of Agriculture, Rome, Italy. Sobaeription 6 f rs. AgricQitural and coosnmcial statistics. Kdltiens hi BngUsh, French, German, Spanish, and Italian. 146 TRAINING FOR FOREIGN SERVICE. Monthly Summary of ForeUpi Commerce of thp United States. Published by the Dept of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Obtainable from the Super- intendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Subscription $1.50. Articles on Subjects Necessary to Training for Foreign Trai>b Sbrvicb. The periodical Indexes to periodicals which will be found most useful in selecting cur- rent articles on the subiects used in training for foreign trade are the Readers Guide* International Index, Industrial Arts Index, Index to Legal Periodicals, and tlie Public Affairs Information Service — all published by the H. W. Wilson Co., 058 University Ave., New York City. The first four, arranged alphabetically by author, title, and subject, are issued monthly with occasional cumulations of from two to six months in one alphabet, and annual cumulated bound volumes. The P. A. I. 8. Is arranged alpha- betically by subject only. It indexes pamphlets, papers and proceedings as well aa periodical articles, and notes the founding of new associations and their publicatlonB. Weekly, bi-monthly and annual issues. These indexes may be consulted in most public libraries. Modem Commercial Languages. Ballard, A. W. Direct method and its application to American schools. Bdncatloiial Review, 51 : 447—56. May 1916. Bard, H. E*. Bcientiflc teaching of Spanish and other languages. Bui. Pan American Union, 45:497-503, October, 1917; Gaillard, G. Langue et kultur. Rev. Politique et Lltttfraire, 55 : 90-4, 119-24. January 27-February 10, 1917. Hall, G. S. Psychological aspects of teaching modem languages Pedagogical Seminary^ 21 : 256-63, June, 1914. Paget, F. Technique in modem language teaching. Educational Review, 54 : 14-25, June. 1917. Paschall, C. Modern language study. Educational Review, 54 : 344—69, November, 1917. Porterfield, A. W. Study of German In the future. School and Society, 4 : 478-80, Sep- temb<^r. 23, 1916. Swiggett, Olen L. Teaching oif modern languages. Second Pan-American Scientific Con« gress. Proceedings. 1915, vol. 4, p. 5OT-8, 1917. Why we should study Russian : the nation's need. School ft Society, 7 : 64(K-4* June 1. 1918. Zick, H. Teaching of modern languages in European secondary schools. Educational Review, 51 : 488-510, May, 1918. Accounting for EwporterB. Krlbben, B. D. Contact of commercial law and accounting. Journal of Acconntancj. 24 : 283-8, October, 1917. Russell, H. A. Export price records. Iron Age, 9ft: 1114-15, November 11, 1915. Card record for informing foreign sales ofllce of changes of production costs. Sailers, E. A. Accounting procedure for trade acceptances. National Association of Credit Men Bulletin, 19:389-91, June. 1917. Walton, S. Accountancy in relation to business organization and management. National Education Association, 1912:1069-75. HUtory and Oeography of Commerce. Adams, C. C. Foundations of economic progress in tropical Africa. American Geographic Society Bulletin. 43 : 753-66 October. 1911. Adams, F. D. Physionl features and the natural resources of Canada. Journal of Geog- raphy, 14 : 82-4, November, 1915. Andrews. C. M. Anglo-French commercial rivalry, 1700-1750 : the western phase. Ameri- can Historical Review. 20 : 539-56, 761-80, April-July. 1915. Ardzroonl. U Commerce and industry in Spain during ancient and medieval times Journal of Political Economy, 21 : 432-53, May, 1913. Austin, O. P. Probable effect of the Panama canal on the commercial geography of the world. National Geographical Magasine. 25 : 245-8, Febraary, 1914. Elliott, L. E. Historic Colombia. Pan-American Monthly, 24 : 271-01, April, 1917. Giles. F. M. Teaching of commercial geography. School Review, 24 : 596-602, October Gras, N. S. B. Some new manuscript sources for the study of modem commerce. Ameri- can Historical Association Report, 1912 : 145-7. Historic results of war-time commerce. Nation, 102 : 238-4, February 24. 1916. Johnson, E. R. Geographic Influences affecting the early development of American c6ni. merce. American Geographical Society Bulletin, 40: 129-43, March, 1908. Reid, W. A. Glimpses of South American activities to-day. Bulletin Pan American Union, 42:325-39. March, 1916. Smithy J. Ri. World entrep<5t. Journal of Political £>conomy, 18 : 697-718, November, 1910. An interesting survey of international distributing centers. Veblen, Thorstein. Passing of national frontiers. Dial, 64 : 387-90, April 25, 1918. Commercial Products. Barker, J. B. Coal, iron, and the dominion of the world. Nineteenth Century, 83 : 698— Edmonds, w. I*' Canada's yearly production. Canadian Magazine. 49 : 147-62, June. 1917. Exhaustible and inexhaustible supplies. Scientific American Supplement, 72 : 331, Novem- ber 18, 1911. . ^ « ^., Export Conference at Springfield. Mass. : expansion of textile exports reviewed. Textile World, 52 : .3489-93, June 30, 1917. ^ „ ^^^^ Fur Industry In South America. Geographical Review, 1 : 299-300, April, 1916. Goods that China wants. Harper's Weekly, 55:25, September 16, 1911. Growing American cotton in India. Literary Digest, 51 : 1469-70, December 25. 1916. Imports and exports by grand divisions and countries. Commerce Reports No. 136, p 964-5, June, 1917. PERIODICAL LITERATURE. 147 Kelr. M. Some economic facts in the development of manufacturing in the United States. Educational Review. 55:238-50, March,«1018. Lefferts, W. Cattle Industry of the llanos. American Geographical Society Bulletin, 45:180-7. March, 1913. Lucke. C. E. Summary of statistics of industries in the United States. Columbia Uni- versity Quarterly, 18 : 167-T5, March. 1016. Meyer. H. U. B., comp. List of dictionaries of commercial commodities and other books descriptive of the material used in the arts, manufacture's and commerce. Special Libraries. 9 : 46-50, February, 1918. Parr, 8. W. Some developments in the chemical industries as a result of war conditions. Science, n. s., 47 : 402-4, April 26, 1918. Besonrcea of an industrial empire in " Mittel-Europa." Americas. 4 no 7 : 1-6, AprlL 1918. Sandberg. H. O. What Central America buys. Bulletin Tan American Union, 43 : 54-71, July. 1916, Sock, A. J. Ruaaia's undeveloped riches. World's Work. 84 : 228-8. June, 1917. (Map.) World-wide search for oils. Americas, 4 no 4 : 22-27, January, 1918. Kon, R. South America timber resources and their relation to the world's supply. Geo- graphical Review. 2 : 256-66, October. 1916. (Map.) Organization of Home, Faoiory, and Olflce for Export Trade. Bunnell, 8. H. Treatment of export Inquiries. Iron Age, 99 : 79-80; January 4, 1917. Bureaus of information in the development of foreign trade (bibliographies compil(Hl by the Library of Congress). Special Libraries, 5: 143-72, December, 1914. Forms for ezport licenses. Iron Age^ 100 : 440-1, Aaguart 23. 1917. Halsey, P. A. Metric system in foreign trade. Nation, 106 : 36r)-2. March 28. 1918. Hommel, L. V. Suggestions for improvements in packing, marking, and forwarding freight — best export methods. Automobile. 86 : 482-3. March 1, 1917. Sanger, F. Training an export manager. System. 29 : 278-9. March. 1916. Watkins. M. C. How exporters handle problems of packing and shipping. Modern Methods. 27 no. 2 : 58-7. Feb., 1917. Westcott. B. N. Packing goods for export ; American manufacturers and South Ameri- can trade. Outlook, 111:498-501, Oct. 27. 1915. Wyman. W. F. The export man and his Job. Modern Methods. 27 no. 4 : 153-9, April, ' 1917. First steps in exporting. Modem Methods. 29 no. 1 : 438-443. Export PoMoiea, Bishop. A. L. Commercial attach^ and the expansion of foreign trade. American Eco- nomic Review. 6 : 293-302, June, 1915. Ciaa«;en. J. Favorable trade balance, the key to future prosperity. Pan American Month^ 25:47-8. May, 1917. Goemann. W. P. Export combinations and the American antitrust policy. Economic World, n. Sy. 14 : 148-52, 186-9, Aug. 4-11, 1917. Part 1, Does the problem of export trade differ from that of domestic trade ; Part 2. Practical effects of export combinations on foreign trade: essential factors lacking; Part 8. Political, legal, and social consequences of combinations in ex- port trade. Johnston, F. American export polirles. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 61 : 51-9. Sept, 1915. M.. J. T. How the German cartel works. Printers' Ink. 103 no. 13 : 53-6, June 27, 1918. Nots, W. Export trade problems and an American foreign trade policy. Journal of Political Economy, 26 : 105-24. Feb.. 1918. Official tariff policies as to protection in Great Britain and America. Americas. 4 no. 9 : 1-8, June. 1918. Primary bases of an export trade. Bulletin Pan American Union, 40: 644-9, May, 1915. Rogers, L. President Wilson's Pan-American policy. Contemporary Review, 111 : 437-47, April. 1917. ^ « . «■ Serious problems involved in the restrictions of imports. Americas, 4 no. 8 : 1-6, Dec, 19lt. Taussig, F. W. How to promote foreign trade. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 82 : 417, May, 1918. Tariff and the foreign trade of the United States after the war. Economic World n. a, 16 : 652-4. May 11, 1918. Foreign Advertising and Salesmanship, Adams. W. H. American advertising in China. Commerce Reports, no. 283, p. 861, Dec. 8, 1917. Fllsinger, B. B. Proved methods and mediums for creating foreign markets through advertising. Associated Advertising, 9 no. 6:11-12, June. 1018. Fisher. H. V. War-time advertising in Great Britain. Advertising and Selling. .27 no. 8 : 16, Feb., 1918. French. A. R. Selecting an export salesman (for Latin America). World's Markets, 2 no. 6 : 11. Feb., 1918. Goemann. W. P. Cooperative selling vs. the middleman in the upbuilding of our for- eign commerce. Economic World n. s., 18 : 546-50. April 21, 1917. ^ .^ .,« Greene. C. H. AdTertising in Latin America. Judicious Advertising, 16 no. 4:49-52, May, 1918. Hunt, Qirl. Government's first advertising missionary departs for a long Jaunt. Asso- ciated Advertising. 8 no. 11 : 5-7, Nov., 1917. ^, . . « . Mahonv, P. R. An expose of South American trade spectres. Nation's Business, 5 no. 6:22-23. Dec, 1917. Oood salesman advice Mason. C. T. "How to say it" in export advertising. Advertising and Selling. 27 no. 5:14. 86-87. Nov.. 1917. ^ ^ _x. . « . ^ . r w iao M., J. T. German attempts to control press through advertising. Printers' Ink. 103 no. 6:3-6. 130-34, May 9. 1918. _ ^ ^ ,, , . , t . ^no I^well J. B. Salesman's qualifications for Chinese trade. Printers' Ink, 103 no, 7:' 65-68, May 16, 1918. 148 TRAINIi^ii FOB FOREIGN SERVICE. Pratt, E. E. Functions of the export middleman. World's Market's, 2 no. 6: 10, Feb^ 1918 -» » -» Stote, A. * How I sold in France. System, 29 : 56-62, 17^-6, Jan.-Feb., 1916. ToIinM, I. B. The Filipino likes American goods ; encourage him. Printers* Ink, 103 no. J):74-«a May no, 1918. Tower, W. S. Buying South American goods as a factor in selling to South America. Journal of Political Economy, 24 : 897-902, Noy., 1916. Wymau, W. S. Sidestepping the export selling; pitfalls. Associated AdTcrtising. 8 no. 9 : 10-12. Details of importance in buUding permanent foreign markets. F&reign Commerce, Oommeroial DeveUifmeni and Commeroiai Polioiea. AuHtin. O. P. International trade in 1917. Americas, 4 no. 7 : 21-24, Dec, 1917. Bell, II. C. British commercial policy in the West Indies. English Historical Review, 31 : 429-41, July, 1916. British policy and international right ; the difficulties of diplomacy. Athenaeom, 4619; 324-27. July^ 1917. Campo, J. A. del. Chile — trade resources and needs : a brief description of comm^r- opportunities in the southern republic which present themselves to American manufacturers and exporters. American Industries, 17 : 29-31, April, 1917. Development of the tropics; a probable result of the war's lessons. Americas, 4 no. 9 : 24-26. Bdwards, P. Ia Trade promotion work of Netherlands €k>vernment. Commerce Re- ports No. 298, p. 1114-17. Dec. 21. 1917. Glde, Charles. Commercial policy of France after the war. Bconoraics Journal, 26:644-7, F^eb., 1917. Gottschalk, A. L. M. rommercial association of Rio de Janeiro. Bulletin Pan American Union, 44 : 630-4, May. 1917. Gregory, H. D. British trade policy after the war and how to meet it. Empire Review (English), May, 1916, p. 163-70. Guirola, Rafael. Comeroio entre E^tados Unidos y Centro America. Pan-American Scientific Congress, Proceedings, 191S, v. 11, p. 237-40, 1917. Hobson, J. A. Rival economic systems in Europe. Contemporary Review, 109 : 193-202, Fe^., 1916. Japan's wonderful trade expansion since the war began. Exporters and Importers Jour- nal, 27 no. 3 : 88-40, June 14, 1918. Latin-American exports: an opportunity. Bulletin, Pan American Union, 43: 190-204, Aug., 1916. Magalhaes, E. de. Germany and South America : a BraaiUan view. Nineteenth Century. 81 : 67-80. Jan., 1917. Same, Uving Age, 292 :491-61, Feb. 24. 1917. Middleton, P. H. Powerful foreign-trade combinations of Bnrope. Railway Age, 64 : 884-7, April 5, sec. 1, 1918. Muhse, A. C. Trade organization and trade control in China. American Economic Re- view. 6 : 309-23. June, 1916. Murase, G. Development of manufacturing industries in Japan. Jonmal of Geology, 11 : 96-8, Nov., 1912. Pasvolsky. Leo. Russia's foreign trade during the war. Russian Review, 8 : 96-104, Fieb., 1917. Perry, Edward. New world after the war; political, financial and commercial problems of Latin America. Sovth American, 6 no 8 : 8-9, Jan., 1918. Robertson. W. H. Argentina's foreign trade for last year. Commerce Reports No. 101, p. 410-13. April 30. 1918. Webb. S. World's trade after the war. North American Review, 206 : 575-^2, Oct.. 1917. Trade Relatk(m» of the UnUed 8UU€$. Bishop. A. L. Commercial attaches and the expansion of foreign tradei American Economic Review. 5 : 292-302, June, 191?5. Changes of five years in our foreign trade. Literary Digest. 67 : 103-6, April 20. 1918. Clark, J. B. Changes in accepted concfmions as to international trade due to (1) Asiatic development and (2) the war. Pan American Scientific Congress. Proceedings, 1915. V. 11, p. 94-9, 1917. Essential conditions of foreign trade. Bulletin. Pan American Union, 46:211-20, Feb., 1918. Goemann, W. P. Federal trade commission's report on cooperation in American export trade. American XSconomtc Review, 7 : 923-6, Dec., 1917. Johnson, E. R. Probable changes in the foreign trade of the United States resultinff from the European war : with discussion. American Economic Review, 6 : sop. p. 17-49, March. 1916. Llano, A. Pan American misunderstandings: unfavorable factors in the relations be> tween the United States and Latin America. Forum. 55 : 477-89, April, 1916. Low, A. M. America and the world's trade. North American Review, 205 : 53-62, Jan.. 1917. McAdoo, W. G. Some international aspects of public education ; our Latin-American relations. School and Society. 4 : 88-93, July 16, 1916. Olney. R. Our Latin-American policy. North American Review. 208 : 185-93, Feb.. 1916. Oudin, M. A. American economic interests in the Asiatic east. Economic World n. s.. 15 : 582-4, April 27, 1918. Redfield, W. C. What one department has done (Dept. of Commerce). Harper's Weekly, 62 : 273-4, March 18. 1916. Robertson, J. M. Theory of trade war. Contemporary Review. Ill : 145-64. Feb.. 1917- Sorrell. L. C. Dislocations in the foreign trade of the United States resulting from tlie European war. Journal of Political Economy. 24 : 25-75. Jan., 1916. Yichniak. J. Possibilities of American trade with Ruaaia. Ind. Management, 53: 100-^ April, 1917. PBSIODICAL LITfeRATUftE. 149 Wardrop. J. J. Trade opportunitie« im W<«t Afrioan marketfl. Exporters' Review, 24 no 2 : 25-26, June, 1918. W«ouncan. C. S., commercial orgjinizatlon for forelioi trade, 1-4. I>otch language, teaching, 125-127. East, Far, and Australia, history, 95-98. Bast, Near, history, 90-95. Economic history, United States, 13-15. Economics, 1-73. Bnglish, business, 9-11. Ethics and psychology, business. 35-37. Europe, history since 1850, 86-88. Finance, comparative, and taxation, 59-60. Fish, C. R., diplomntic history of the United States, 102-105. Foreign countries, comparative political history and institutions, 100-102. Foreign exchange, 55-56. Foreign languages, 123-140. Foreign relations. United States, 105-107. Foreign service, study of European history since 1850, 86-88. Foreign trade, commercial organization, 1-4; periodical literature. 141-152. Frangols, V. E., teaching of Romance lan- guages, 127-132. French language. Ker Romance languages. German language, teaching, 125-127. Qerstenberg, C. W., comparative corpora- tion laws and finance, 60-63. Geography, economic, foreign countries, 15-17 ; industrial and commercial, 4-6. Government, 75-121. Grove, C. C, business mathematics, 31-35. Hart, A. B., study of American diplomacy, treaties, and foreign policy, 109-114. Harvard University, foreign-trade courses, 22-23. Hatfield, II. R., Inventments, stock and pro- duce exchange, commission and brokerage exchange, 56-58. Ilershey, A. 8., contemporary international relations, 107-109. History, diplomatic, United States. 102- 105; economic. United States, 15-17; political, foreign countries, 100-102. Hornbeck, B. K., modem internationalism, 119-121. Hotchkiss, G. R., business English, 9-11. Hubbart, G. H., advertising and salesman- ship. 11-13. Iliiebner, O. G.. transportation and ship- ping in their relation to foreign trade, 47-49. Hygiene, tropical resources, 27-31. Immigration and citizenship, 77-80. Insurance courses, preparation for foreign trade work, 63-65. International law, 80-81. International relations, contemporary, 107-109. Internationalism, modern, 119-121. 153 154 INDEX. Investments, 66-68. Italian language. See Romance langnages. James, J. H., the chemistry of commerce, 24-27. Japanese language, teaching, 12d-126. Jones, K. D., domestic markets and trade, 17-20. Languages, foreign, 123-140. Ijatan^, J. H., foreign relations of the United States, 105-107. La tin- American Republics, history, 88-00. Law, commercial and maritime, 81-83 ; international, 80-81. Litman, Simon, domestic and foreign com- mercial policies, 70-74. Lough, J. E., business psychology and ethics, 36-37. MacEIwee, R. S., port and terminal facili- ties, 40-52. Maritime law, 81-83. Markets, domestic, 17-20; foreign, 20-24. Mathematics, business, 31—35. Money and credit, 52-^5. Norwegian language, teaching, 132-136. Ogg, F. A., comparative political institu- tions and political history of foreign countries, 100-102. Paxson, F. L., political history of the United States, 98-100. Periodical literature, use in education for foreign trade service, 141-152. Polish language. See Slavic languages. Political history, foreign countries, 100- 102 ; United States, 98-100. Politics, economic background, 83-86. Porter, C. R., money and credit, banking, banking organizations and practice, 52- 55. Ports and terminal facilities, 49-52. Products, commercial, 7-9. Psychology and ethics, business, 36-37. Putnam, G. E., comparative finance and taxation, 59-60. Railway traffic and rates, 62. Riegel, Robert, Insurance courses in the preparation for foreign trade work, 63-65. Rivas, Damaso, tropical resources and hygiene, 27-31. Romance languages, teaching, 127-132. Roorbach, G. B., economic geography of foreign countries, 15-17. Rowe, L. S., study of fiscal and customs legislation, 65-70. Russian languages. See Slavic languages. Salesmanship, 11-13. Scandinavian language, teaching, 132-136. Secri^t, Horace, statistics ae applied to business, 41—44. Serbian language. See Slavic languages. Shepherd, W. R., history of the Latin- American republics, 88-90. Sioussat, St. G. L., history of Eiurope since 1850 as a study preparatory for foreign service, 86-88. Slavic languages, teaching, 136-138. Smith, J. R., industrial and commercial geography, 4-6. Social legislation, 77-80. South America, tropical resources, 27-^1. Spanish language. See Romance languages. Statistics, applied to business, 41-44. Stock and produce exchange, 56-58. Swanson, A. E., study of business admin- istration and organization, 37-39. Swiggett, G. L., introduction, iil. Tariff. 44-47. Taussig, F. W., foreign trade and tariffs, 44M17. Taxation and comparative finance, 59-60. Terminal facilities, 49-52. Trade, domestic, 17-20. Trade (foreign), 20-24; accounting ap- plied, 39-41 ; tariffs, 44—47 ; preparation, 37-39; shipping and transportation, 47-49. Transportation and shipping, relation to foreign trade, 47-49. Treat, P. J., Far Bfest and Australia, 95-98. Treaties and foreign policy, United States, 109-114. Turkish languages, teaching, 138-139. United States, diplomacy, treaties, and foreign policy, 109-114 ; diplomatic history, 102-106; economic history, 13-16 ; foreign relations, 105-107 ; political history, 98-100. Usher, A. P., the economic background of modern world politics, 83-86. Van Tuyl, G. H., business arithmetic, 6-7. Wassam, C. W., commercial products, 7-0. Wiener, X^eo, teaching of the Slavic lan- guages, 136-138. Wildman, J. R., accounting applied to for- eign trade, 39-41. Williams, E. T., teaching of Chinese and Japanese languages, 123-125. Williams, Hattie P., immigration and citi- zenship ; social legislation, 77-80. Wilson, G. W., international law, 80-81. Yohannan. Abraham, importance of Turk- ish and .Armenian languages for foreign service, 138-140, O -«• I- ■>• ■ ^ «, •7 "» .-•■ .- ^ •'^ ;.»■ »- * >• • », ■vi «• . ''IT 'L ' " -t ^• ■ <-!. . .y X •* ~ e Harvard University, Library of the Graduate School of Education ^^ ^ DEPARTMEKT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN. 1921, No. 28 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WHEEUNG, WEST VIRGINIA A REPORT OF A SURVEY OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF THE INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT OF WHEEL- ING. WEST VIRGINIA. MADE AT THE REQUEST OF THE BOARD OF SCHOOL COMMISSIONERS. UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION ( I ii WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1921 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF TmS PUBLICATION ICAT BE PBOCURED PROM THK StTPERnfTBNDKNT OF DOCUMENTS OOVEKNMENT FBINTINO OPIICE WASHINCrTON, D. C. ▲T 10 CENTS PER COPY CONTENTS. Page. Letter of Dr. P. P. Claxton to the president of the Wheeling board of education. 5 M«nberB of the survey commiflBion 6 Intiodoclion 7 I. Orgaoization and administration of the srhool eystem 9 II. The legislative program 12 III. Financee and accounting 20 IV. School buildings and grounds 30 V. The building program 37 VI. The high schools 42 VII. The elementary schools 44 VIII. Physical education, health supervision, and health teaching 46 IX. Home economics 48 X. Mi»TinaJ training and vocational education 49 XI . Art education 51 XII. Tangible results of the survey 53 3 LETTER OF DB. P. P. CSLAXTON TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE WHEELING BOARD OF EDUCATION. Hon. Paul O. Reyhann, President J Board oj Education j Wheeling j W. Va. Mt Dbab Mb. Reyicakk: In accordance with the arrangement entered into with the Wheeling Board of Education, I have caused a careful study to be made of the public school system of your city, and have received preliminary reports from the members of the survey commission designated to do the field work. As requested by you, I have had prepared a brief digest, or sum- mary of the principal conclusions and recommendations, in order that thebe may be distributed in printed form to the members of your board and to others interested. Accompanying this summary, I am sending also partial reports, or sections of the report, which present a portion of the supporting evi- dence and the argument for certain of the recommendations. I am maViTig an effort to get as much as possible of the report into your hands in time for appropriate action in the emergency caused by the early termination of the recess taken by the West Virginia State Legislature. I believe you have in the material presented herewith sufficient data to enable you to formulate your petition to the legislature. The remainder of the report I hope to place in your hands within the next two or three weeks. Permit me to thank you and, through you, all the members of the board and the teachiiig staff for the hearty cooperation which all concerned have manifested toward the work of the survey, and to express the hope that the final result will be f oimd in improved edu- cational opportunities for the children and youth, as well as the maturer citizens of Wheeling, and increased utilization of these opportunities by all. Very truly, yours, P. P. Claxton, Commissioner. Washinoton, March 10, 1921, 5 MEMBERS OF THE SURVEY COMMISSION. The members of the commission appointed by the Commissioner of Education to make the survey qf the public schools of Wheel- ings and to report to him their findings and recommendations, are as follows: From the Bureau of Education. Dr. William T. Bawden, assUtant to the commiaBioner, director of the survey. Mrs. Henrietta W. Calvin, specialist in home economics. Miss Nina C. Vandewalker, specialist in kindergarten and primary education. Miss Florence C. Fox, specialist in educational systems. Mrs. Alice BairowB Fernandez, specialist in industrial and economic relations in education. Miss Julia B. Tappan, assistant in school hygiene. From Outside the Bnreaa of Education. Dr. J. Franklin Bobhitt, professor of educational administration, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Mr. Ralph Bowman, specialist in school finance and accounting. United States Bureau of Efficiencyy Washington, D. C. Dr. Willard S. Small, director of educational research and development. Interde- partmental Social Hygiene Board, Washington, D. C. Dr. Chester A. Buckner, profe^r of secondary education, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. Dr. Thomas Alexander, professor of elementary education, Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. Dr. Fletcher B. Dresslar, specialist in school architecture, buildings, and grounds,. Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. Mr. Walter H. Elar, director art department. University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. Mr. Lynton F. Garrett, principal of the Training School, State Normal School, San. Marcos, Tex. 6 INTRODUCTION. On December 17, 1920, the president of the board of school com- missioners inquired concerning the possibility of having a survey of the public schools made under the direction of the United States Commissioner of Education. The conditions named were met by the board at a special meeting held on December 30, and an appro- priation of $5,000 was made to cover the necessary expenses of the survey. The members of the survey commission, as indicated on the preceding page, were appointed by the Commissioner of Educa- tion, and the field work began on Monday, January 17. The field work was completed on March 10; most of the work was done during February. The aggregate number of days devoted to field work was approximately 200. On Thursday evening, March 10, the director of the survey made a report of the conclusions and recommendations at a special meeting of the board of school commissioners, and a digest of the report was given to the press for release on the morning of the 12th. On Friday evening the report was made public at a meeting of representatives of the board, various civio organizations, and the press through the distribution of a printed pamphlet of 53 pages. THE SURVEY BUDGET. The principal items of expenditure in connection with the survey may be summarized as follows: Tnuurportation and subeifltence of members of the commiaeion $1, 796. 91 Hononuria of members of the commission not connected with the United States Bureau of Education 1, 850. 00 Materials used in educational tests 47. 09 Clerical assistance 399. 92 Printing preliminary report 348. 00 Supplies, telephone, telegraph 80. 52 Total, to April 5, 1921 4,522.44 7 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WHEELING, WEST VIRGINIA. L ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. INTRODUCTORY. The independent school district of Wheeling was established by act of the Viiginia LegiBlature, in Richmond, February 23, 1849. It was then, and has since been maintained, entirely independent of all other school corporations, general school legislation, and even of the municipal corporation of Wheeling — notwithstanding, at present, more than two-thirds of the area of Wheeling lies outside the independent achool district. Originally the board of school commissioners consisted of five members . Subsequent legislation to all intents and purposes divided the independent school district into seven relatively autonomous subdistricts, and provided for the present board of 21 members. In certain important respects this board functions as seven relatively independent local boards, and exercises executive control over such technical matters as appointment of teachers, administration of the school buildings, and the like. A good type of personnel appears to have been attracted to the office ; and the sub- districts have acquired a tradition of selecting high-minded men for their school commissioners. Certainly the present board is of this type. Some of the board's methods and actions must be criticized ; but the errors to be pointed out are errors of judgment and not of character or effort. Minutes of the board show that the superintendent of schools is not consulted nor asked to nomina,te teachers; until recently the principals were not consulted on appointments; nothing more clearly shows the primitive character of educational administration in Wheeling. LACK OF COMMUNITY INTEREST AND SUPPORT A SERIOUS HANDICAP. The community generally has been indifferent toward public school matters; active public cooperation and moral support have been largely lacking. Inactive members of the community who have made no effort to promote good schools have scarcely earned a right to criticize . MANY COMMENDABLE FEATURES IN SPITE OF UNFAVORABLE CONDITIONS. In spite of unfavorable conditions, including lack of vigorous community support, unwieldy size of board, inefficient scheme of organization, and the like, ntuneroufl 'commendable features have been introduced by the board. Some of these are: (1) Medical inspection or health service. (2^ Numerous special supervisors and special teachers. f3) Free textbooks. [4) Development of the public library. 66670*^—21 2 9 10 EDUCATIONAL SUBVEY OF WHEELING, W. VA, ^5) Kecent large increases in salaries. (6) Recent expansion of the budget. (7) Setting standard qualifications for high-school teachers. (8) An unusually extensive series of courses for vocational, industrial, commercial, and home-making training. ^9) Recent attempts to extend the benefits of physical training. (10) The tendency to defray the expenses of members of the supervisory corps in attendance at professional meetings. ^11^ Provision of visitinj; days for teachers. (12) A not ungenerous sick-leave allowance. (13) Provision of a '^ coach" teacher for each building (although the plan is not administered effectively). (14) An unusually go€>d system of providing substitute teachers (incomplete, but excellent so far as it goes). (15) Numerous sets of supplementary readers, and a system for circulating them (in serious need of attention, but a highly commendable start). (16^ A teachers' pension system. (17) Evening schools. (18) Americanization classes. DIFnCULTIES OF ADMINISTRATION THROUGH COMMITTEES. The board has an unusually large number of standing committees — ten — each of which performs important functions properly belonging to the board itself. Four of these committees are each as large as the entire school board of New York City; and the smaller committees are each the size of the entire school board in Albany or Troy. Adding these 10 functional boards to the seven local or subdistrict boards, and the composite board in which they all belong, one may realize something of the complexity of the organization and the possibilities for scattering responsibility. For example, the committee on buildings and grounds acts chiefly as individuals, ordering repairs, painting, etc., without consultation, and without previous action by the board. The committee meets, confirms the acts of individual members, and then requests confirmation by the board. From the way in which reports are presented, the board can have no real knowledge of what is done; confirmation is practically in- variable, and without debate. In view of the amount of work to be done, members of the committee can not give the amount of time necessary to know all the details and needs of all the buildings. Each member knows many things about "his " building, it is true, but there is nothing approaching that specialized understanding of buildings, grounds, and equipment in relation to education that is needed for the efficient and economical administration of a modem, school system. Further, they themselves sit among the judges of their own acts. Evidence of a certain degree of irresponsibility is found in the use of businesB prac- tices universally condemned, and generally forbidden by law; such as entering into contractual business relations with individual members of the board, and executive action by individual board members prior to directing action b> the board. The results of this system of lay administration may be seen in the actual building situation in Wheeling. Even old buildings can be made pleasant, light, airy, sani- tary, and reasonably safe; but this has not been done. There is little evidence of careful planning, standardized procedure, settled policies, a forward-looking build- ing program. The board's task is not to do the work, but to get it done; first, by directing, and then by inspecting, so as to be sure the work is efficient and economical. The committee on buildings and grounds is active and conscientious, and appean to give an unusually large amount of time and attention to executive labors. It is not a question of honesty, or integrity, but of incorrect organization and procedure for securing results. SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION. 11 IMPOSSIBLE FOR LAYMEN EFFECTTVELY TO EXAAONE AND SELECT TEACHERS. The activities of the oommlttee on teachers and schools afford other examples of the difficulties involved in the attempt to perform expert executive functions through committees or individual members of the board. Without professional training and extended experience, it is not possible to judge efficiently the relative merits of can- didates for principalship and teaching x>ositions. In actual practice, the scheme has worked badly, omitting entirely any provision for rating the efficiency of principals and teachers, and means for eliminating the ineffident; another serious omission is that of a rule requiring consultation with superintendent and principals in choosing teachers. No provision has been made for recognizing superior merit or professional advancement by increases in salary or otherwise. The alternative plan is to leave executive labors to professional executi/es. The superintendent alone, in consultation with principals and supervisors, can know how many teadiers are needed, and the special abilities needed for each t>'pe of position. This plan places responsibility where it belongs; relieves t&e board of unnecessary labois; gives the superintendent authority over his. teachers, which he can not have so long as they owe their positions to others; permits the board to hold the superin- tendent responsible for results — a thing impossible now. WORK OF OTHER COMMITTEES DISCUSSED. 'nie report discusses in detail the activities of all the standing committees of the board, and shows clearly what functions properly belong to the board and what duties should be performed by executive officers under the direction of the board. It is impossible in this brief digest to devote space to each. LACK OF AN EXECmTYE HEAD A SERIOUS DEFECT. To summarize the situation, perhaps rather bluntly, the fundamental weakness in the public school system in Wheeling has been 'executive management by laymen. There are many analogies between the management of a school system by a board of education and the management of a business or a factory by a board of directors; but the fundamental principles of organization and management generally accepted in businees and industry, and in progressive school systems, have not been operative in the Wheeling schools. The board of directors of a business or manufacturing cor]X)ration does not mix in the details of the work. It employs a chief executive, outlines its policies to him, makes clear to him the results to be secured, gives him control over the means to be employed, and then demands that he get results. They then employ various methods of accounting, auditing, and otherwise checking up the results. In the Wheeling schools, however, the executive work of the board is mainly per- formed by committees, or even by indi\ddual members, who buy and sell, employ and discharge, enter into and abrogate contracts, direct employees, and attend to countless details usually left to executives and their subordinates. In the sense in which the term is used in the business world, the board has no chief executive, and there is little evidence in the plan of organization to show any realization of the need of one. Let the business man on the board imagine what would happen to his bank, or store, or factory, if it were managed by a conunittee of outsiders who dipped into the business for, say, two hours each week. The conduct of a big school system is a more complex, difficult, and technical job than merchandising or banking. What is needed is the adoption of a plan by which the board will get things done in responsible ways, and enforce responsibility, without doing the things themselves. 12 EDUCATIONAL. SURVEY OF WHEELING, W. VA. The board should occupy itself mainly with directorial and inspectorial functions, leaving detailed executive labors to their specialized and experienced executive officials — the superintendent of schools and his subordinates. FUNDAMENTAL NEEDS IN WHEELING. Briefly stated, some of the things which need to be done are: (1) Eliminate the subdistricts, except for attendance purposes. (2) Eliminate the local commissionerships, and have board members elected at large. (3) Provide a small board of men and women who will be beyond the reach of local, petty, personal, and political influences. (4) The board should delegate responsibility and authority to its chief executive, provide the necessary means, demand results, and then stand aside and let the super- intendent and his organization get results. (5) The board should adopt impersonal ways of checking up results, efficiency, and economy. * • (6) The board should take the community into its confldence fully, at all times, and keep the public informed as to policies, needs, and results. NEW LEGISLATION ESSENTIAL. , The laws governing the independent school district of Wheeling are in a confused, fragmentary, and archaic condition. The complete charter legislation which governs the district is not in the possession of the board, nor an> of its officers, nor of the public library which is under the control of the board. The school laws applicable to WTieeling should be completely rewritten on the basis of the best modern practice. The report contains detailed suggestions concerning those matters which should be included in State legislatures, and also those which should be cared for by rules and regulations or other local legislation by the board. ' n. THE LEGISLATIVE PROGRAM. There is a conmiendable tendency in progress! \'^e States to eliminate special charter legislation for independent city school districts. \Mien the State drafts a good general law for the purpose, it saves a city a good deal of special maneuvering simply to come in under it. If Wheeling does not choose to follow this course, it is recommended that, in rewrite ing the charter, the general State legislation be accepted so far as it is suited to condi- tions in Wheeling, and that special legislation be sought only in so far as the general legislation is not suitable. NECESSARY DISTINCTION BETWEEN STATE LEGISLATION AND THE RULES AND REGULATIONS OF THE BOARD. Only the more general and fundamental things should be accomplished by State legislation. Matters of detail should be left to the by-laws, rules and regulations, axxd other legislation by the board. In the following summary of the things to be taken care of in the proposed reorganiza- tion of the affairs of the independent school district of Wheeling, those matters which are usually best taken care of by State legislation are designated b> the letter (S); and those which are best included under the rules and regulations or other legislation of the board are designated by the letter (R) THE LEGISLATIVE PROGRAM. 13 SUMMARY OF POINTS TO BE COVERED. (I) The Bubdistrict diviflioiia should be abolished, except for attendance pur- poses. (S) f2) There should be a school board of five members, elected at large, one member- being elected each year, for a term of five years. (If elections must be biennial, then the term should be six years, one-third of the board, as nearly as may be, being elected at each election.) (S) (3) It is desirable, though not so essential, that members be nominated by petition and elected on nonpartisan ballot, at special school elections, held in the school build- ings, and directed by the board of education. (S) (4) Board members should be citizens of the United States, and residents of the city for at least three years immediately preceding election. (S) (5) No salary or other remuneration should be paid to board members. This does not preclude the payment of traveling and other necessary expenses involved in the conduct of the board's business. (S) (6) When a vacancy occurs other than by expiration of term of office, it should be filled by the mayor (subject to confirmation by the council) until the next school election, when it should be filled by election for the unexpired portion of the term. (S) (7) A specific day and hour should be fixed for the first meeting of the board subse- quent to the annual election, at which time the board is organized for the year. (S) (8) A specific day and hour should be fixed for the regular monthly board meetings, and a method prescribed for calling special meetings. (R) (9) The board should have no standing committees except the committee of the whole. (R) (10) When tasks arise demanding committee work, the board should appoint tem- porary special committees. (R) (II) The superintendent of education should be made the chief executive of the board of education in its administration of all aspects of the school system. (S) (12) The board should appoint the superintendent for a relatively long term of three or four years, subject to removal only for cause by a four-fifths vote of the board. (S) (13) In Wheeling the board should create (if not already created) and provide for the following positions subordinate to the chief executive: (1) Business assistant (who also should be clerk of the board); (2) manager of properties (or director of buildings and grounds), subordinate to the business assistant; (3) director of census and attend- ance; (4) director of health (including both medical inspection and physical educa- tion), (5) primary supervisor. Beyond these, the present provision of special super- visors, principals, teachers, nurses, etc;., appears to be good. (R) (By-laws.) (14) Outside of the major executive organization the board should provide for and appoint for only part-time or occassional duties an attc mey, a treasurer, and an auditor. (R) (By-laws.) POWERS AND DUTIES OF THE BOARD. (15) The board should })088e6s corporate powers: The power to acquire, hold, lease, and sell real and personal property; to receive l>equests and donations; to sue and be sued; to condemn property needed for educational purposes; and to perforoi other corporate acts required for the management and control of the schools and other agencies committed to its care. (S) (16) The powers and duties of the board of education should be: (a) To determine all questions of general policy to be employed in the conduct of education. (S) {h) To create, abolish, modify, and maintain such positions, schools, divisions, claseificationB, etc., as may be necessary for the efficient administration of the work. (S) 14 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WHEELING, W. VA. (c) To have the care, custody, title, control, and safekeeping of all school property or other proi>erty of the city used for educational, social, or recreational activities and not specifically placed by law under tiie control of some other body or officer, and to prescril^e rules and regulations for the use and preservation of such prop- erty. (S) (d) To purchase new school sites or additions to sites, and to order new buildings or additions to buildings erected, as the needs of the scnools and other educational, social, and recreational agencies under their control may necessitate; and to approve all contracts entered into. (S) (e) To rent or lease property required for the use of schools or other agencies main- tained and directed by the board. (S) (/) To establish and maintain sucn free elementary schools, intermediate schools, hi^h schools, kindergartens, vocational and industrial schools, technical schools, night schools, part-time or continuation schools and classes, vacation schools, open-air schools, schools for adults, schools for delinquents, schools for mentally and physically defective children, or such other schools or classes as the board shall deem necessary to meet the needs and demands of the city. TS) (g) To estabLLsh and maintain libraries ana public, to oi^nize and maintain public lecture courses, and to establish, equip, and [g) To establish and maintain libraries ana museums which may be open to the maintain play grounds, recreation centers, social centers, and reading rooms. (S) (h) To authorize the formulation of the annual budget of expenditures for the scnools, pu})lic library, and other agencies maintained by the boara, and to pass upon and adopt such budget as the work appears to neces^tate. (S) i) To fix the annual tax levy for education. (S) j) To fix the salaries of all officers and employees. (S) i) To approve all expenditures made. (S) I) To approve all contracts entered into. (S) m) To authorize the formulation of the by-laws, rules, and regulations needed for the direction and management of the schools and other agencies and activities under the board, and to approve such by-laws, rules, and regulations before they become operative. (S) (n) To autnorize the courses of study which shall be given in the schools or by oth^ educational agencies directed and mamtained by the board, and to approve the con- tent of such courses before they become operative. (S) (o) To auliorize the selection and determination of such books, maps, globes, apparatus, furniture, tools, and other equipment ana supplies as may be necessary for the proper and efficient management of the schools and other educational, social, and recreational agencies and activities under its management and control, and to approve such selections and determinations before purchases are made. (S) (p) To authorize the purchase and provision of such books, maps, globes, appara^ tus, furniture^ tools, and other equipment and supplies as may be necessary for ttie proper and efficient management of the schools and other educational, social, and recre- ational agencies and activities under its management and control, and to approve prices and other conditions of purchase, before such purcha^ies are made. (S) (7) To select and employ a superintendent of education, who shall be tne chief executive of the board. (S) (r) To authorize the detiermination of the number and qualifications of employees to be provided for the work of the several schools and agencies, and to approve such determinations before employees are selected. (S) (a) To authorize the estaV>lLshment of an efficient system of certification of teachers, and the preparation of eligible lists. (S) (t) To require the superintencent to nominate all assistants, directors, and super- visors of special departments, principals, teachers, physicians, nurses, janitors, and other officers and employees in the organization under his charge; the board to pass upon and approve all nominations before appointments are made, and to make all appointments and approve all contracts. ^S) (u) To authorize the determination of planB for attendance, censoB, claasifieation, ^sidmg, promotion, transfers, graduation from schools and courses, and other matters involved in the management and control of the pupils and students, and to approve all such plans before tney become operative. (S) (v) To authorize the determination of plans for testing, recording and reporting the degrees of proficiency attained by the pupils in tlie several classes, grades, and schools; approve such plans before they are put into operation; and to provide the means necessary for making the plans operative. (S) {w) To authorize the preparation and publication periodicallv of reports to the community which set forth in a clear and intelligible manner tlie chajucter of the efforts, degrees of achievement, working conditions, finance, and further needs of the THE LEGISLATIVE PB06BAM. 15 Bchoob and other agendee maintained and directed by the board; to approve such leports before they are published ; and to direct their publication and difltzibution. (S) (x) To require th^r officials to make such reports of the educational and other activitiee under their charge as may be legitimately requested by. county, State, or national authority. (S) (y) To x>erfonn'any duty imposed upon boards of education by the laws or admin- istrative regulations of the State so far as the;j^ may be apj^Ucable to the schools or other educational agencies and affairs of the district and not inconsistent with other legis- lation affecting the district. (S) (s) To prescribe such by-laws, rules, and regulations as may be necessary to make the State legislation effective, and for the conduct of the proceedings of the board, and for transacting all the affairs of the board that relate to the management, operation, control, maintenance, and discipline of the schools, )>ublic librar}% and all other edu- cational, social, and recreational agencies and activities under its charge or direction. (S) iaa) To perform such other duties and to possess such other powers as may be re- quired to administer the affairs placed imder its control and management, to execute all powers vested in it, and to promote the best interests of the schools and other agencies and activities committed to its care. (S) POWERS AND DUTIES OF THE SUPERINTENDENT. (17) The superintendent of schools should possess the following powers and be charged with the following duties: (a) To serve as the chief executive officer of the board in its conduct of the schools and of other agencies and activities committed to its care. (S) (h) To attend all regular and special meetings of the board, and to cooperate and advise with all committees of the ooard. (S) (c) To ex^cise the right to speak on all matters before the board , but not to vote. (S) (- ment of the scrhools and other agencies under the board, the maintenance of grounds, and the purchase, storage, and distribution of books, maps, charts, apparatus, tools, and all other e<]uipment, materials, and supplies. (S) ih) To have charge of the svstem of certification of all teachers and other employees, except as otherwise providea for by law, and to prepare, as occasion demands, eligible lists for all tvpes of positions. (S) (0 To noimnate as needed the asdstants, directors and supervisors of special de- partments, principals, teachers, physicians, nurses, librarians, janitors, clerks, stenog- raphers, ana other emplovees. authorized by the board. (S) (m) To recommend, subject to the approval of the board, the salary to be paid each official or employee of the board. (S) (n) To have supervision and direction of assistants directors, and supervisors of special departments, principals, teachers, librarians, phvsicians, nurses, attendance officers, janitors, and other persons employed in the conduct of the schools and other agencies under the board . (S ) (o) To assign principals, nurses, janitors, librarians, and other employees to the schools or other place where their work is to be done ; to transfer them from one school 16 EDUCATIONAL, SURVEY OF WHEELING, W. VA. or other place of work to anoither; and to report immediately such transfers to the board for consideration and action. (S) (p) To assign teachers to schools, grades, classes, and courses according to the needs of the service ; to transfer teachers from one school to another, ht>m one grade to another, from one class to another, according to the needs of the service ; and to report immediately such assignments and transfers to the board for its consideration and action. (S) (q\ To report to the board violations of regulations and cases of insubordination; and in cases sufficiently grave to warrant it, suspend any official or employee under the direction of the superintendent until the next regular meeting of the board when all the facts relating to the case shall be submitted to the board for its consideration and action. (S) (r) To recommend for discharge or retirement any employee under his direction whose influenc3 or sendees are so unsatisfactory as to warrant such action, subject to the approval of the board. (S) («) To prepare, in conference with the business assistant and others in possession of the necessary facts, an annual budget, showing in detail the appropriations necessary to meet the estimated needs of Hie ensuing school year, and submit the same to iJie board for consideration and action. (S) (t) To recommend to the board transfers from one budgetary appropriation to another as conditions may require . (S) (m) To have power, within the limits of the detailed budget approved by the board, to approve and direct all purchases and expenditures, making report to* the board at each monthly meeting, and at any other time when the board may request it; to report proposed detailed expenditures prior to action, whenever the board may reouest the same, for its consideration and action. (S) (v) To have supervision and direction over all activities involved in the census, the enforcement of the attendance laws, the classification, grading, promotion, disci- pline, and the organization and management in general of the pupils and students. (w) To have supervision and direction over courses of stuay, methods of edrca- tional procedure, the working conditions of pupils and teachers, standards of achieve- ment, the supervisoryr labors of special supervisors, principals, and departmental heads, the training of teachers in service, the measurement of educational achieve- ments, and every other professional factor, agency, or activity involved in the effi- cient conduct of education. (S) (x) To make decisions in the case of controversies or conflicts arising in the ad- ministrative organization of which he is the head , subject to appeal to the board . (S) (y) To decide all matters of detail purelv ministerial and administrative in me application of laws, by-laws, rules, and regulations to the concrete situations that are met with; and to decide any matters that may arise concerning which no specific provision is made in the legislation, reporting his decisions at the next regular meeting of the board following such decisions. (S) THE BUSINESS ASSISTANT AND CLERK OF THE BOARD. (18) The business assistant to the superintendent and clerk of the board, before entering upon the duties of his office, should execute a bond in such sum as directed by the board, conditioned upon the faithful discharge of his official duties, and delivery to his successor of all district property pertaining to his office or in his custody. (19) The business assistant, under the supervision and direction of the superin- tendent, should perform the following duties: (a) Act as purchasing agent, receive, store, and distribute the books, supplies, apparatus, and other materials and appliances authorized by the board. (K; (6) Represent the board in negotiations relating to the construction, repair, and maintenance of school property. (R) (c) Recommend to the board through the superintendent such assistants, clerks, janitors, engineers, foremen, and mechanics as shall be needed for continuous employ in the department under his charge ; and have authority to employ for brief periods such workmen as are necessary for the execution of the labors of hia department, and to discharge the same. (K) (d) Supervise all matters of repair, and have general charge of all buildings imder the charge of the board. (R) (e) Malce and keep accurate and reliable real and personal property records which shiJl show the cost, time of purchase or acquisition, present value, and location of the property. (R) THE LEGISLATIVE PROGKAM. 17 (/) Cauee the property of the board to be insured in such amounts as the board may from time to time direct^ and keep a record of insurance placed on school prop- erty^. (R) (g) Make to the board through the superintendent written monthly report of the condition of the buildings and other property of the board, as to Repairs, construction, ftnd improvements, including such requests of principals as require action of the board, with recommendations thereon. (R)* {h) Draw up or examine all contracts and other engagements in which the board is a party. (K) (%) Receive tuition fees, fines, monev from the sale of books, shop construction, and other school property and sei vices, nrom other buildings, and irom other sources, except such as are paid to the treasurer of the board according to law, and dexxMit all moneys collected by him with the district treasurer at least once each month. (R^i (f\ Audit all claims, approve all bills, and submit the same to the auditor of the board for audit and approval. (R) (k) Audit all cash collections made by the agents of the board, and determine the kind of form of reports to be required of such collecting agents. (R) (T) Keep the revenue and exx)ense accoimts, asset ana liability accounts, budget allowance ledger, registers of purchase orders, vouchers and warrants, expenditure distribution record by schools, pay-roll records, registers of leases; rents, bonds, and building construction, and other contracts. (R) (m) Draw all warrants in payments of claims against the board. (R) (n) Submit to the board a monthly report of receipts, disbursements, and budget balances, and an annual report at the close of the fiscal ye{ur. (K) (o) Act as custodian of all contracts, securities, documents, title jMipers, books of record, and other papers belon^ng to the board. (R) (p) Have supervision and direction over the director of properties, janitors, and other continuous or temporary employees of the department under his charge. (R) (a) P^orm such other duties as may be assignea by the superintendent under the aaUiorization of the board. (R) (20) The business assLstant, in his capacity of clerk of the board, should perform the following duties: fa) Perform the usual functions of secretary to the board. (R) (b) Keep the minutes of the meetings of the board, and a calendar of all matters referred to committees and others, and report action or nonaction on the same at each regular meeting. (R) (r) Send written notices to board members of both special and re^lar meeting of the board, with <^endar of all matters to be brought before the meeting so far as these are known at time of sending the notice. (R) (d) Receive and reply to all communications to the board according to the directions of the board. (R) {e) Perform such duties as are prescribed by law or by the by-laws of the board in connection with school elections of every kind. (R) The legislation above suggested will provide for good organization and procedure upon the administrative level of the management. It is not possible here to enter into a full enumeration of all the laws, by-laws, rules, and regulations that should be enacted for the governance of the schools. The things to be provided for are very numerous and can be ascertained by an examination of the complete school code of West Virginia, or other States, together with an examination of manuals of rules and regulations of careful school boards. MEETINGS OF THE BOARD. One way of estimating the efficiency of the board is to note the regularity with which the members attend the meetings. For this purpose an examination was made of the nunutes of the board, and the attendance noted during the three years from January 1, 1918, to December 31, 1920. I>uring this x>eriod, the board held 37 regular meetings, 9 special meetings, 1 ad- journed meeting, and 7 meetings at which there was no quorum; total, 54 meetings. Sixteen members have been connected with the board for the entire three years; of these, 1 member attended all of the 54 meetings; 1 attended 53, and 1 attended 51; 65670*>— 21 3 18 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WHEELING, W. VA. only 9 others attended more than 22 meetings. One member has attended but one meeting of the board in three years. In 1918, when 16 meetings were held, 7 members attended only 8 meetings or less; in 1919, when 21 meetings were held, 8 members attended only 10 meetings or less; in 1920, when 17 meetings were held, 8 ^nembers attended only 8 meetings or less. The following table shows the number of meetings held during the three years, and the number of members present at each: Table 1. — Attendance of members at meetings of the hoard of education. Number of meetings. Three years' total. Aggre- gate at- tendanoe. • Number of members present. 1918 1919 1920 18 1 1 3 4 9 8 9 8 6 2 4 18 17 3 1 8 2 3 8 2 2 1 2* 4 8 4 2 1 51 16 1 2 3 2 3 2 64 15 136 14 112 13 117 12 96 11 66 10 20 9 8 2* 1 86 7 ...,----..-.. 1 1 7 Total .* 16 61.9 21 61.9 64.4 64 62.7 771 Per cent of attfliMlance Of the 54 meetings held during the three years, 7 had fewer than 11 members present, or a quorum; at only 8 meetings were there more than 15 members present; only 1 meeting was attended by as many as 18 members. *The per cent of attendance of members for the 3-year period was 62.7. In this connection, it may be noted that the board requires 75 per cent performance from the children in the schools as a condition of promotion. SCHOOL CENSUS. A school census is taken annually in Wheeling, but it does not appear that the board makes any special use of the data thus secured, for no analysis has been mitde of the figures. Further, the work of enumeration is very carelessly done, and the reports are quite unreliable. * For example, an analysis of the 1920 school census figures was made by the survey staff, in order to ascertain how many children were reported of each age. A compari- son of these figures with the figures for enrollment in nine public elementary schools and six parochial schools shows that there are enrolled in these schools 949 more children under 14 years of age than are acooimted for in the census reports. Again, an analysis of the 1915 census enumeration was made, for comparison with correspond- ing figures of five years later. The total number of white children rex>orted was 10,315; of these, the ages are not given in 2,182 cases, or more than 20 per cent of all. Of 238 colored children, the ages are not reported in 118 cases, or nearly 50 per cent of all. Such reports are practically valueless, and payment for them is a waste of public money. THE LEGIStATIVE PBOGBAIf. 19 Table 2.— ^Comparison of 8^u)ol census with school enrollment^ 19£0 — Number of children reported of each age. A^Jn years. Under 6 6to6^ 6^107 7to7J5 7^to8 8to8^ 8^to9 9to9^ WtolO 10 to 10^ 10^ to II 11 to 11.5 lUtoU 12 to 12.5.... 12^ to 13 13 to 13.5.... ia.5tol4 14 to 14.5.... 14^tol5.... 15 to 15.5 15.5 to 16.... Utol6.5 U.5tol7.... 17 to 17.5.... 17.5 to 18.... 18 to 18.5.... 18.5 to 19.... 19 to 19.5.... 19.5 to 20.... 2D to 20.5.... 2D.5to21.... Over 21 Mot reported Total.. Census enumer- aticm, Enrolled In— 9 public elemen- tary schools, Septem- ber, 1920. 6 parochi- al schools Septem- . ber,1920. Not in elemen- tary schools. Excess. 8chool census figures should be checked up more carefully to insure accuracy and completeness, and then they should be carefully analyzed and studied with a view to placing the facts before the board. These facts should include the number of children of each age who ought to be in school; where they live; how many are actu- ally enrolled in public, private, or parochial schools; how many are working at gainful employment; other reasons for nonattendance at school. Progressive communities are now supplementing the formal census enumeration by providing for cumulative record cards, to be made and kept up to date by the attendance department. The card contains information concerning residence, names and birth places of parents, date of birth of child, sex, nationality, kind and grade of school attendance or reason for nonattendance; name and address of employer and nature of employment if employed, etc. If such cards are kept up to date by the addition of names of children moving into the community the essential facts about every child of school age can be available at all times. Early in each school term the census reports should be checked against the enroll- ment in the public, private, and parochial schools to ascertain what children are out of school. The attendance officers can then visit the homes of these children and follow them up. Census information, when properly digested and utilized, will thus function more completely in the administration of compulsory school attendance. 20 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WHEELING, W. VA. child labor legislation, and the (in^nting of work pennits. It will also prove valuable in studying the growth of the community and the shifting of population, and thus assist in planning school accommodations for the future. in. FINANCES AND ACCOUNTINa COMPARISON OF CITY SCHOOL EXPENDITURES WITH THOSE OF CITY DEPARTMENTS. (a) City government enjoys the advantage of having the various city revenues to meet part of city expenses; whereas the schools must levy a tax for almost their entire expenditures. Therefore the tax rates of city and schools are not comparable, nor are they comparable with tax rates of other cities not organized in like manner. (h) Comparison between city departments and schools should be made only on basis of expenditures. Of the total amount expended by both city and schools from 1917-18 to date the schools alone have expended but 35 per cent; schools and library together, 36i per cent. (c) School costs in AMieeUng have doubled since 1915, but this is true also of schools throughout the country. Increase in teachers' salaries and increase in other costSy together mth additional school activities, are responsible for increase in 1920 school tax. (d) Other public expenditures in Wheeling have increased in even greater propor* tion than the schools. Since 1917 the expense of the city council has increased 224 per cent; bvu^eau of streets, 144 per cent; bureau of fire, 142 per cent; bureau of police, 98 per cent; bond principal and interest, 95 per cent; bureau of health, 57 per cent; whereas the school expenditures have increased but 55 per cent. (See Table 1.) FINANCING AND ACCOUNTING. 1 1 :3:§5533r p ^^riiicixr^cici ' '«n "°3^5S3*rf" ;3rf ^ s-sgsssss-^ r: ;i; liiM » I ^1! lit M T I ni{| I- 1 I iV 22 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WHEELING, W. VA. (e) City of Wheeling includes more taxable property than the independent school district; therefore city can raise as much money by a smaller tax rate as the schools can by a larger tax rate. (/) Comparison between tax rates of 1919 and 1920 show school tax rate to have increased 54 per cent, and city tax (based on equal amount of taxable property to have increased 50 per cent. (g) Conclusion to be drawn from the above is that school tax of 86 cents in 1920 is logical and in line with what other cities are doing for their schools. COMPARISON OF WHEELING SCHOOL EXPENDITURES WITH THOSE OF OTHER CITIES. (a) The taxable wealth in the independent school district of WTieeling for 1920 is $65,404,955.1 But a study of school taxation by 45 cities of 30,000 to 100,000 popula- tion in 1917-18 reveals the fact that Wheeling was considered as not assessing property on a 100 per cent valuation, and if so taxed its taxable wealth in 1917 would be 193,534,000 instead of $62,893,115 as given. (6) In comparison with the same 45 cities. Wheeling ranks 33 as to total school expenses (excluding additions and improvements); it ranks 38 in expenses for general control; 32 in instruction cost (day school); 34 in cost of plant operation; 29 as to expenses for auxiliary agencies; and 26 fixed charges and interest. (c) Wheeling's cost in 1919-20 per pupil average daily attendance as to total school expenses is $76.69; for general control, $3.16; for instruction (day school), $54.13; operation of plant, $7.34; upkeep, $7.16; auxiliary agencies, $2.26; fixed charges and interest, $2.64. THE ACCOUNTS OF THE WHEELING PUBUC SCHOOLS. (a) The public schools of Wheeling unfortimately, like numerous other school systems of the country, maintain no accounting system in the technical sense of the word. By this is meant a double-entry set of books from which balance sheets, op- erating, and other analytical statements may be currently drawn. (6) The school accounts of Wlieeling consist of a voluminous record of receipts and disbursements, a portion of which is duplication, with but little separation as to character of expenditure, and mixed up as to distribution of functional costs. There appears to be a misunderstanding as to which funds are the proper ones to make certain charges against and have the charges legal. Instances exist where abatements of expenditures are shown as revenues; and also the opposite, where abatements of rev- enues are shown as expenditures. Expenditures pertaining to di£Ferent school years are not clearly segregated. Expenditures, such as repairs and improvements, are grouped together, although one is expense and the other investment. (c) The annual financial statements of the schools are to be criticized as masses of undigested data, giving little information to the public, and of practically no value for administrative review. (d) The method of filing is antiquated and the filing apparatus obsolete. (e) As for the store records, it would be unfair to say that there are none, inasmuch as memoranda totals of quantities are occasionally made; but, nevertheless, the requisitions on which books and supplies are delivered from the storeroom are not priced nor extended and are therefore not recorded in any financially usable form. (/) The schools are doing a business of from $300,000 to $400,000 (in 1919-20 it reached $500,000; in 1920-21, $619,425.36), but the accounting staff consists of one man who acts as clerk of the board, bookkeeper, cashier, paymaster, filing clerk, purchasing agent, and storekeeper. The only assistance he has is a portion of the services of a stenographer, who acts also in like capacity for the superintendent of schools. Including pubUc utiUties, $72,026,205. PINANCING AND ACCOUNTING. 23 (^) Inquiry develops the fact that it has not been the policy of the board to author- ize, or the clerk to request, attendance by him at annual conventionB of school ac- countants where modem and advanced methods of school accounting are reviewed and discussed. Diagedion of School Accounts and PrepanUion of Balance Sheet, Operating ^nd Other Financial Statements. (a) The total value of school property in Wheeling, after deducting depreciation, is 11,071,454.13. WhUe it would cost twice this amount to replace it, this is the amoimt it approximately represents in modern educational values. (6) In 1919-20 the schools expended $421,227.38, of which 1376,427.47 (89.4 per cent) WHS for expense (salaries, supplies, and repairs); and $44,799.91 (10.6 per cent) was for investment (additions and improvements). (c) The total revenues were $426,400.97, of which $337,884.10 went to the school fund and $88,516.87 to the building fund. (d) The following show conditions as of Jime 30, 1920, and indicate the forms in which it is suggested that the several accounts be kept: INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT OF WHEELING. W. VA. Balance Sheet (AU Fuids Together). UABILrriES. Land. 1315,101.66 Bonds oatstanding tl20,eficitin school fund June 80, 1920. • Tbese two items make a total of 85,021.86, the school fund deficit on June 80, 1919. • Available for school operation, upkeep, and miscellaneous expeoMB. • A vailable only for additions and improvements. 88,516.87 24 EDUCATidlSrAL. SIJRVEV of WHEELING, W. VA. Table 4. — Statement of property of the independent school district of Wheeling ^ as of June SO, 1920. Items. Total Elementary schools Washington Clav Jefferson Union Center Webster Madison: Old building. New building Ritcher McKlnley Lincoln* Secondary sdiools High school— main building Home economics building. . Athletlcfleld ToUl. 9107,145,413 720,383 } 52,000 52,000 46,500 07,000 51,613 84,000 212,280 61,000 34,500 29,500 30,805,947 28,295,947 26,000 4,210,166 Land (original cost). $31,510,166 123,000 { 10,000 10,000 8,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 25,000 25,000 10,000 5,000 (*) 150,000 140,000 10,000 4,210,166 Instructional buildings. Type of construc- tion. Brick 1887 ...do 1862 ...do 1897 ...do 1906 ...do 1880 ...do 1893 ...do 1918 ...do 1921 ...do 1872 ...do 1887 ...do 1893 Brick 1915 ...do (*) (*) Bate. Cost. $65,065,247 527,603 36,000 36,000 33,000 73,000 35, 113 73,000 97,514 52,066 42,000 25,000 25,000 12,295,047 11,095,947 12,000 Items. Total Elementary schools . Washington Clav Jefferson Union Center Webster Madison: Old building.. New building. Ritcher McKlnley Lincoln* Secondary schools. High school— main building. Home economics building. . . Athletlcfleld. Instruc- tional equipment (cost). $77,700 41,700 3,000 3,000 2,000 5,000 3,000 6,000 5,500 3,200 6,000 2,000 3,000 36,000 32,000 4,000 Janitors' residences. Type of construo- tion. Frame. Brick.. ...do... ...do... ...do... (») > Frame. ...do... Frame. (0 Date. 1887 1874 1897 1884 1882 1889 1890 («) 1885 Cost. $28,000 28,000 3,000 3,000 3,500 4,000 3,500 4,000 3,000 2,500 1,500 1 Janitor has his residence within the school building, s Date of construction not obtained. * Lincoln School is a school for colored children, and has both elementary and high-school grades. * The grounds of the Lincoln School are a part of the city commons, and therefore title to the land is not vested in the board of education. FIKANCING AND ACOOtTNTING. 25 Table 5. — Statement o/ i919-t0 expendUmes ly dtaroa/eT and function, as of June SO, 1920. Total ezpenditares. Ftnaadngi ^ Direction and control...: Teacbinc superviaioa InstmctloDai service Operation of building^ and o-oimds ITpkeep ofboUdings, ffouncu, and eqaipment. AnzflilHyaeendfle and other aetivitiM Investment. Additions and improvements. Bocul payments Amoont. $421,227.38 376,427.47 12,820.01 9,525.62 6, 82a 80 266,970. 91 35,587.74 84,736.45 10,9Qaw74 44,799.91 34,799.91 10,000.00 Per cent. 100.0 89.4 3.0 2.3 1.4 63.4 R.5 8w2 2.6 10.6 8.2 2.4 1 Interest on bonds, interest on bank overdrafts, commission to Oity ooUector on coUections, and fidelity tamanoe. Table 6. — Statement ofrevenvMtfor 1919-20. Items. Total. Cash balance, July 1, 1919 Federal aid (Smitb-Hugbes fund). State lands 1 Loeal taxes: In 1919-20 DeUnquent from prior years . . Tuition fees Sales of material and supplies Depository interest HisoeDaneous revenues SofaoolAind. 8337,884.10 1,074.25 84,379.51 292,462.74 4,73&95 1,884.46 1,679.38 1,741.09 423.72 Buflding fund. $88,516.87 33,031.51 5,440.31 48,483.12 752.42 472.70 327.81 Total. $426,400.97 33,03L51 1,074.25 39,82&82 340,945.86 5,491.37 1,384.46 1,679.38 2,218.79 751.53 ^ Not ftmds in tlie nature of State aid, but funds representing a tax on corporations and penalties upon ertates of deceased, collected by the State in Wheeling and so returnable to tne locality. Table 7. — CimsoUdated hakmee sheet as of June SO, 1920 (all funds). UABTLnaa. Funded debt: Bonds outstanding tl20,00ao0 Capital investment 951,454.18 Fixed pr<^>erty: Land $315,10L66 InstructiiHial buildings 050,652.47 InstrocCUmal equipment 77,700.00 Janitors' residences 28,00a0O Total 1,071,454.13 Gorrent assets: Stores (instructional suppUes) ^ 5, 000. 00 Insurance (prepaid and unearned) * 500. 000 Taxes receivable (delinquent) > 6, 000. 00 Gash-BuUdingfimd. . . .$51, 312. 49 School fund 46,138,90 Total. 4 5,173.50 16,678.69 Total 1,071,454.13 CHirrent liabilities: Accounts payable (•) Surplus 15^678.59 Total 15,673.59 Grand totaL 1,087,127.72 Grand total 1,087,127.72 1 Estimated on hand at end of fiscal year. > Estimated. s DeUnquent taxes of current and prior years. * Credit balance, representing overdraft on bank. * Accounts payable ondoabtedly existed at this time, but they were not readily obtainable ihmi the •oooimts as maintained. 66670*^—21 4 26 EDUCATIONAL SUBVEY OF WHEELING, W. VA. Table 8. — Operation ttaUment (idiool funi) aa of June SO, IQtO. DBBRB. Deficit from 1918-19 i|4,021.86 Ezptnses of 1919-20 871,40Su61 Total 875,427.47 Reranues 191»-20 *I337,884.10 Ezoen of ezpenBes over operation reve* . noes *37,MS.S7 Total 375,427.47 1 This amount, with the $1,000 payable from 1918-19 buUdibg ftmd, makes a totol of t5,081.», the deOctt in school fund at close of 1919-30. The payments being made In 1990-21 are arbltraiily distrilmted as abofve into expenses and investment. t Available for operation and upkeep of schools and for mlsoeilaneous expenses. s The differftnoe between the building ftand surplus ($42,716.96) and the sdiool ftmd deficit ($87,54S.S7) is $5,173.59, which is the amount shown as ntt cash on the balanoe sheet. In these two statements the tedmical entries neoessary to show balances to agree with bank balances (eradit and otefdnft) an omitted. Tablb 9. — Capital acoownt etaUment (building fund) as of June SO, 1920. DBBRS. Aooounts i>ayable ftom 1918-19 $l,O0aoo Investment for year 1919-20 44,799.91 Excess revenues over expenditures 42,71&96 Total 88^516.87 > Available only for additions and improvements. CBKDR8. Bahmoeflram 1918-19 i$33,03L51 Revenues from 1919-20 155,485.85 Total 88^516b87 Tablb 10. — Balance sheet as of June SO, 19t0. (Library fond.) Fixed property: Land $20,068.68 Buildings 86,207.73 Equipment- Books 41,664.98 Periodicals 4,058.28 Library furniture 1,600.17 ML 17,250.00 Capital investment 84,$ia71 Grand total 106,907.36 1 Estimated. * Not easily obtainable from the accounts as maintained. Total 105,7ia09 Current liabilities: Accounts payable (>) Surplus 1,816.66 Total 1, 816w ftS Grand total 106^907.36 Table 11. — Operation statement. EZPBNDrrUKXS. Financing ^$164. 89 Library administration and service 5, 474^ 38 Building operation 2,422.02 Upkeep of building and equipment 1, 101. 32 Total expenses 9,162.61 Investment (additions and improve- ments) 2,917.97 Total expenditures 12,080.58 Excess of revenues over expenditures... 1,616.65 Total I«,e97.28 I Commission to city collector on collections. * Tax on local oorpocBtians; also penalty tax on BBVENUXS. Cash balanoe, July 1, 1919 $2,54L04 State (transmitted by StAte auditor) ... > 1, 061 60 Local taxes— 191^20 9,883.83 Delinquent fhmi prior years 151.77 Bookflnes 490l 50 Depositary interest 75^40 TotaL... of deceased. 13,607. 2S FIKAKdNQ AND ACCOUNTING. 27 Tabls 12.—IndependnU mhool dUtrid of WheeHng, W, Va.'^ExpendUure9 for finxd year, 1919-tO. Per cent. Amount. FlTmnrtng: Oamimwfam cm ooUeotions (dty oolleotor) , IntarestonbondB imanatoabAnkoTerdrafts Fidelity inranaoe. ToteL. DifMtion and control: tthool eleettons Board of edtHatioD and dlerk'a ofllM. Snperlntsndent's office BnlDiceineat of compnkNiry attendance laws . OunaosenniiHntlob TotaL. TeaeUngeapervlfllDn: Indaetrialednoatkm. Homeeconomto FhyetealinstnictJoa. . Health iMtmetkm... DiBWtDg Peninaiuihip . TotaL. Instiiiotlonal eervloe: Dayaehool^ EtementarylnstmotloD^ Undistribiited Wblteadioole OolorBdaelioolfl. TMaL. Seoondary inetmctlon (hicli adiool)— XTndistribated White saboole Oolored aohoole. Total. Total day sdiool , NlshtBOhocI— Beeondary Instmotloii— white sabooi . Smniner adiooi— Seoondary Inetmotlon— white aoiiool . Total instmotional service. Opemtlon ofboildlngBand grounds: Day school^ Elementary aohoole— Undlfltribated White adibola OokKed aehoola. TotaL. Baeondary adiool»» Undistributed... White aehoola... Colored Bchoob.. TotaL Total day aohool. Nl^ti Secondary aohool— white achool. Sommersehool— Seoondary achool— white aohool . Athletic Held— nndJatrtbnted Total operation of buildin^B and croonda. . L8 L3 .2 .2 3.0 .7 .1 1.1 .4 2.3 .8 .3 .2 .1 .2 .1 .2 L4 4.8 39.8 2.7 47.3 3.4 ia7 LO 16.1 62.4 .6 .4 «3.4 .1 &8 .4 6.3 2.0 .1 2.1 &4 .06 85,704.56 6,625.50 718.96 780.00 12,829.01 2,76L68 610.00 4,629.04 1,446.00 79.30 0,625.82 1,405.96 1,180.47 64L33 290.22 84L25 635.06 817.50 5,820.80 ^20,187.39 167,246.62 11,388.83 198,772.34 U4,532.27 45,262.63 3,989.17 63,734.07 262,506.41 2,699.60 1,786.00 266, 07a 91 SBESSKSSaC « 665. 07 24,422.48 1,687.48 26,666.56 »7.60 7,866.84 600.34 8,4A&28 .04 35,130.86 242.74 64.14 160.00 8.5 35,587.74 28 EDUCATIONAL SUBVEY OF WHBEX.ING, W. VA. Table 12,— Independent sahool distHet of Wheeling, W. Va.— Expenditures for JUeal year, 1919-20 — Continued. Uplroep of baildlii{;8, flrounds, and equipment: Elementary school Undistributed.. White schools.. Colored schools. TotaL.... Secondary schools- White schools... Colored schools.. Total. Total upkeep of buildings, grounds, and equipment . Auxiliary asenoies and other activities:. Promotion of health of school children. After-school playground supervision Lectures, eraduation exercises^ and oelelxations . Partidpaoon in expenses of Mozart SchooH Contribution to teachers' pension fund TotaL. Investment: Additions and improvements- Land and improvements to land ipro^ Buildings and heat, light, and plumbing equipment. Instrucuonal equipment . Miscellaneous equipment. Total. Payment of bonds (increase in owner8hip)-^iigh-school bonds. Total investment Total expenditures Percent. 0.1 G.4 .1 6.6 1.6 L6 8.2 L7 ..... 2.6 4.1 2.7 1.3 .1 Amount. «|4m.29 27,075.64 650.02 28,124.05 6,428.16 183.34 6,611.50 34,736.45 7,101.89 08.50 535.76 040.60 2,280.00 10,066.74 8.2 2.4 10.6 100.0 17,444.00 11,508.01 5,408.00 855.00 34,700.01 10,000.00 44,700.01 421,227.38 1 Teaching service of industrial education, home economics, physical instruction, etc., not distributed by sdiool buildings. > Miscellaneous l^uUding operation expenses not distributed by school building. * Miscellaneous upkeep expenses not distributed by school bmlding. « The Mocart School expenditures are shared by three different school districts, of wUdi theindependfint wfaiool district of Wheeling is one. {e) The point that referendum approval of a bond iasue authorizes a tax levy for a bond principal and interest fund in addition to other school taxes seems never to have been considered by the board. (/) The legality of the school levy for 1920, which includes a tax for high school, from a reading of such sections of the school law as could be found, appears question- able. But the law which relates to the independent school district of Wheeling is such a matter of patchwork that the question is probably only to be solved by an extensive legal search and then confirmed by a court ruling. (y) The present policy of the board in regard to the teachers' X)ension fund as to appropriating a sufficient amount yearly to pay pension annuities without the prin- cipal of the fund being impaired should be incorporated permanently in the rules and regulations of the board. (A) A statement of the expenditures of the schools in 191^20 by functions has been prepared in detail and will be shown as an appendix to the report. THE PUBUC LIBRARY. (a) Prior to the present year, when the board increased the library tax from \\ to 1} cents, Wheeling has taken advantage of but one-fourth of its authorized power to tax 6 cents per 1100 for library purposes. (6) Compared with 10 years ago the activities of the library have more than doubled. FINANCIH^G AND ACCOUNTING. 29 I I (c) A balance sheet prepared for the library as of June 30, 1920, shows its net invest- i ment to be |S4,340.71, and its surplus $1,816.65. {d) An operating sheet for 1919-20 shows an excess of revenues over expenditures to the amount of $1,616.65. («) A graph, covering period of the last 10 years, shows book circulation and cost per 100 books circulated. The cost of Ubrary administration and book service is so low as to merit criticism rather than commendation A per capita circulation in I Wheeling of 1.9 and a cost of $8.37 does not show the libenUity of such cities as Chi- I C8go, Cleveland, and Pittsburgh, which have a per capita circulation of 2.2, 4.8, and 2.5, respectively, and which expend $10.30, $13, and $28.10 per 100 books circulated. I (Analysb of library expenditures of those cities in 1916-17.) (/) Chicago spends 22.2 cents, Cleveland 62.6 cents, and Pittsburgh 69.9 cents per capita for public libraries; whereas Wheeling spends 21.4 cents. Obviously Wheel- ing should begin the construction of branch libraries and be more liberal in its expen- ditures for library personnel and in its purchase of books. CONSTRUCnYE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SCHOOL FINANCIAL AND BUSINESS PROCEDURE. (a) What is vitally necessary for the schools is the establishment of a busLaess department to be headed by a subexecutive who shall report to the board via the superintendent of schools. (6) Such a department should contain an accounting staff of adequate size to furnish ihe superintendent, the board, and the public the same kind of financial and statis- tical information as is commonly required by any first-dass business concern. (c) Modem accounting methods and procedure should be adopted. {d} Up-to-date filing apparatus should be installed; likewise other labor^aving devices wherever practical. («) All contracting and purchasing should dear through this department, and a complete system of stores control should be put into effect. (J) AH janitorial and repair service should be under the technical control and supervisiQn of this department, and under the managerial supervision of the various school principals. (g) This department should be emphatically a service agency to the school system as a whole, to the superintendent, and to the board. {h) A modem budget system should be adopted by the board. Such a budget diould be prepared on the basis of functions and should include the originating of departmental estimates by the heads of the various school departments. These estioiates should be transmitted to the business department for combination and analysis, and then be forwarded to the superintendent for review. He, as the schools' executive, should be responsible for the budget in its entirety, and in its presentation to the board it should represent the policy and program which he recommends for the schools for the ensuing year. The function of the board should then be the approval or disapproval in total or in part of the budget as submitted. Upon its approval and formal adoption by the board the budget should be the superintendent's legalized authority for the ensuing year's expenditures; and he should be the administrative official to be held responsible for the board for the execution of the budget as approved. . (t) An amendment to the school code should be immediately presented to the legislature, which wiU make mandatory the adoption of the school budget for the ensuing year prior to the close of each fiscal year, and thus eliminate the hiatus of financial authority which at present exists between the beginning of a school year and the date prescribed by law for the adoption of the budget by the board several weeks later. 80 EDUCATIONAIi SUBVBY OF WHEELING, W. VA. IV. SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS. DIFFICULTIES INHERENT IN THE SITUATION. The city of Wheeling is so crowded between the hills and the river that there are really no vacant spaces suitable in size, contour, and position upon which to locate Bchoolhouses in any satisfactory way, and therefore the school board is faced with great difficulty when the problem of selecting new sites arises. One of two things will have to be done if the board insists on proper sites, as it should: It will be neces- sary either to enter extensive condemnation proceedings in order to clear spaces laige enough, or else accessible sites must be found beyond the ordinary limits of the city and some arrangements made for transportation to these. It is recommended, therefore, that the board take this matter in hand at once, and after due consideration and public discussion settle on a policy to pursue when future buildings are under consideration. Each school principal, with the cooperation of his teachers, should be asked to prepare a ''pin map'' showing where the students now attending school live. These maps will show at a glance from what parts of the city the children come and how, relatively, they are situated with reference to the present buildings. If such maps are prepared each year, then objectively they will show any possible shifting of the clientage and a hint at least of how to anticipate needs. SURROUNDINGS AFFECT THE EFHOENCY OF A SCHOOL. In addition to the problem of congestion as it relates to needed sites, the problems of dust and noise should receive more consideration than heretofore. Union School site is a horrible example of selectii^ a lot too close to a noisy, dirty, and dangerous railway; and the Ritchie School is not much better off. The present school lots are totally inadequate in size to permit any playgrounds of real consequence. A real school playground, big enough to satisfy school children, is the best democratizing agency possible, and far more effective most of the year for health development than any gymnasium. ORIENTATION AND UGHTING. Classrooms of school buildings are best lighted and best purified by sunshine when the windows open toward the east or west only. The lighting of all the school buildings in Wheeling is seriously tiiulty. In the first place, all the classrooms where it was possible have bilateral lighting. This is bad, and all thoughtful teachers know it. Under such conditions either the teacher or the pupils must face toward windows. In most cases the pupil is compelled to work in his own shadow, and because of cross lights he is handicapped in many other ways. In all future buildings the house should be so planned and set on the lot as to giye east or west exposure on the long side of all classrooms, and no windows should be set in other walls. These windows, at least five in number, should be set with sills 4 feet above the floor, and should run to the ceiling, or as close to the ceiling as possible. They should be grouped closely together, and the glass area should be approximately one-fourth of the floor area. Adequate reasons for these directions may be found in any good book on school hygiene. HEATING AND VENTILATION. The hot-air heating systems foimd in most of the present school buildings do not represent the best practice, nor the most econcnnical for school buildings. A low- SCHOOL BTTILJ)INGS AND GROUNDS. 31 pieaBUjre steain heating plant ib the beet. Direct radiation in the rooniB with ther- mostatic regulation, but without the use of fans, will in the long run prove most efficient. ADEQUATE SUPPLIES OF FRESH AIR ESSENTIAL. It is almofit impoeaible with hot-air furnaces to keep the various rooms evenly and properly heated and healthfully ventilated. In future buildings low-pressure steam heating should be installed , with ample radiation in each room, controlled by ther- mostats, and teachers should be required to regulate the ventilation through properly constructed windows. JANITOR SERVICE. The janitor service in the school buildings of Wheeling is, with few exceptions, inferior, and the prime cause of this inefficiency is due mainly to the fact that the janitors are not placed directly and specifically imder the direction and control of the principals of the various schools. There should be no divided responsibility here. The principal should be held responsible for the hygienic condition and safety of the building, and this responsibility necessarily carries with it authority over the service of the janitor. The janitors should be well paid for their arduous services, and should be selected and retained by reason of their efficiency and ability to perform their very important duties. Next to the principal of the school, the duties and opportunities of the janitor call for good judgment, initiative, and special knowledge almost as much as do those of any teacher. Muiy liberties are now being taken by the janitors of some of the buildings, such as storing their own furniture, vegetables, canned goods; doing their own ^unily wash- ing during school hours, etc., in school buildings. Such use of school buildings is not desirable, and shoidd be discontinued. FLOORS OF SCHOOLHOUSES. The school buildings of Wheeling were originally furnished with unusually good floors, but they have been badly abused and show lack of proper care. Most of the old buildings were supplied with fine oak floors, and these have held up well imder the abuse they have been subjected to. They are now dry ; cracks have opened , and spUn- tera are appearing. This is largely due to the wet scrubbings they have had to undergo; Floors diould never be scrubbed with soap and water, for this is the surest and quickest way to ruin them. They should be sanded and swept clean, and then oUed ttid swept with some sawdust preparation containing the proper porportion of oil, sand, and sawdust. This will keep the floors cleaner, prevent clouds of dust from rising, and also prevent the boards from alternately swelling and shrinking, as will be the case i^ien scrubbed with soap and water. FLOORS SHOULD BE CLEANED AND OILED. All the floors of the various buildings should be thoroughly cleansed andithen cautiously and properly oiled with a light oil. Oiled floors are more free from dust, last longer, look better, save work in keeping them clean, and are more hygienic than dry floors. COLOR OF WALLS. The treatment given to the walls of the schoolrooms in Wheeling generally violates not only the canons of good taste but the requirements of utility. Not only are many of the rooms unsightly and esthetically annoying but the effect is even harmful, in that the rooms are darkened when more light rather than less is needed. 32 EDUCATIONAJL SUBVBY OF WHEELING, W. VA. Scientific inveetigatioii has detennined in no uncertain tenuB the colors which are best to use on schoolroom walls, and school boards should make sure that a decorator who enters a schoolroom knows what is best and will then faithfully follow intelli^nt guidance. The following brief summary of suggestions resulting from investigations on this subject may be helpful in planning future changes: 1. The wall space between the floor and the window sills, and the chalk troughs, should be a light brown. 2. Side walls and ceilings shoidd be in a light buff, or cream, depending to some extent on the illumination and the location of the building with reference to climate. A light gray is also acceptable. Colors from the red end of the spectnmi shoidd never be used. CLOAKROOMS. Cloakrooms are necessities in all elementary schools, and locker rooms for high schools. The plans of the older buildings in Wheeling made insufficient space for cloakrooms, and as a result the children 's wraps and other articles of clothing are often piled up together, thiis offering opportunity for the transmission of parasites from child to child and also preventing proper airing or drying in damp or rainy weather. BLACKBOARDS. The various school buildings of Wheeling are supplied with excellent slate black- boards, and in general these are in splendid condition. However, they are not always set at the proper height to meet the needs of the children through the various grades. In all future bidldings, in those rooms designed for first and second grades, the blackboards should be set 26 inches above the floor; in those for the third and fourth grades, 28 inches above the floor; in those for the fifth and sixth grades, 32 inches above the floor; and in those for the seventh and eighth and high-school grades, 36 inches above the floor. The blackboard should be 36 inches wide, from top to bot- tom, except at the teacher's end of the room, where it should be 48 inches wide. STAIRWAYS AND FIREPROOFING. If the furnaces, coal rOoms, chimneys, stairways, and halls of school buildings are made fireproof; if janitors are careful to keep all greasy mops or rags, oils, and other inflammable materials in fire proofed rooms; and if all electric wiring is inclosed in steel tubes and otherwise properly protected, then there is little danger to the children or to the buildings from fires starting from within . Should a fire menace from without there will always be ample time to get the children out before they are endangered. There is little or no value in fire escapes for school children, because with safe and adequate stairways they can be gotten out of danger by means of carefuUy planned and thorough fire drills in less than one-tenth of the time, and with far greater safety, than through any fire escape ever made. The chief effect of fire escapes at pubHc- school buildings of two stories (and they ought not to be any taller) is to produce a feeling of false security in the minds of parents. CONSTRUCTION OP STAIRWAYS AND EXITS. Stairways should have ample landings, wide treads, medium risers, and strong, properly placed handrails. They should be well lighted and sufficient in nimiber and capacity to meet safely all possible demands. Many, in fact, nearly all, of the older school buildings in Wheeling are a fire menace, because practically none of the precautions of construction noted above have been complied with. Hence, janitors should be constantly on guard, and should not be permitted to leave their buildings during school hours. Elsewhere this report empha- sizes the need of keeping basements from debris. SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GEOUNDS. 33 SIZE OF CLASSROOMS. Forty pupils are enough for a teacher to handle in the elementary grades, and a dasBTOom 30 feet long, 22 feet wide, and 12^ feet high is sufficient space for this num- ber of pupils. This will accommodate ^ve roWs of desks, with eight in a row, and allow sufficient room for aisles and other necessary space. Many of the classrooms in the old buildings are more nearly square, and contain considerably more cubic feet of space than necessary. This increased the cost of the buildings unnecessarily, and likewise has constantly demanded more heat, more cleaning, and more expense for general upkeep. Classrooms for high schools must vary to acconunodate large, medium, and small classes. Satisfactory dimensions and arrangement of rooms can be arrived at only when the architect consults with the principal and teachers who are to use the par- ticular building in question. TOILETS AND URINALS. All toilet seats should face toward windows, and should bo set along walls in single rows, and not back to back. Such rooms should be arranged in stacks on the main floors and kept out of basements. These rooms should open out of rest rooms, lava- tories, or locker rooms, and not directly into halls. If possible, direct-pressure wash- out fixtures should be installed. Juvenile sizes should be installed for the first four grades at least. All urinals should be set under windows and furnished with glazed white stalls and set a little below the level of a tiled floor. While this floor should slope slightly toward the urinals, it is a serious blunder to make this slope too far back. The best fixtures are in the long run most economical. Toilet rooms must have plenty of light and sunshine and abundant ventilation. PLACING DESKS. If desks are fastened to the floor, great care must be taken to space them properly, and at about 2) inches minus distance. That is to say, a vertical line from the edge of the desk to the floor should strike the seat l^oard about 2) inches back from its front edge. Desk chairs are better, for these can be selected in a number of sizes, and can be shifted to take advantage of conditions and demands. They are not fastened to the floor, and can therefore be adjusted more readily to individual children. STORAGE OF FURNITURE AND OTHER DISCARDED MATERIAL. Every city system of schools should have a central storage building and shop i&dhiieSf into which to check all surplus furniture where repairs may be made, and where lists of all temporarily unused equipment may be kept. Under this plan, whenever any item of furniture, material, or supplies is needed in any building, the superintendent can quickly and accurately determine whether the item requisitioned is available or whether it is necessary to purchase. SUMMARY OF BUILDING NEEDS. MCKINLEY SCHOOL. • The lighting of the classrooms in this building is bad and has been from the first. Whenever windows are placed on two sides of a classroom either the teacher or the pupils will have to face glaring windows. It is xxHsible to take two of the windows from' the north and south ends of these rooms and set them in the east and west walls, and to close up the third window to the north and south. While this will give far better illumination than is now provided, # 34 EDUCATIONAL SUBVEY OF WHEEUNG, W. VA. it will not furnish the requisite ratio of glass svacfBce to floor snr&ice for any of the rooms. There seems to be no remedy for this deficiency, because the classroomjs were not properly proportioned as to length and width when the building was planned. The walls in this building should be refinished in a lig^t color. A light creamy buff, or a very light gray is sale and acceptable. The present disagreeable green is not only annoying to sensitive childTen but also absorbs a great deal of needed light. The floors of this building have been badly damaged by repeated scnibbings, and should be thoroughly cleaned and then oiled. RITCHIE SCHOOL. The old building of this school should be discarded at the very earliest opportunity, for it would cost more to reconstruct it to meet modem demands than to construct an entirely new building. No money should be expended on tiiis building, save that which is necessary to keep it as £afe and clean as possible during the time it may be used. The basement should be thoroughly cleaned of all rubbish and broken and dis- carded furniture. When this building was inspected by the representative of the survey commission, it was necessary to send for the janitor, who could not be found about the building. There is too much at stake, with a building occupied by children, to allow any possible danger to arise without some responsible person at hand to take immediate* actioo. If some imperative mission takes the janitor away from the building during sdiool hours, some other responsible person should be substituted until his return. In every such case the principal should approve the arrangements in advance. The ventilation of neither building at this school is adequate, and the teachers should all be carefully directed how to use the windows most effectively for this purpose. Unfortunately, the newer building is situated so close to the railroad tracks that effective school work is practically impossible. With the exception of bilateral lighting, setting the windows too near the floor, and insufficient cloakroom space, this annex is quite satisfactory as far as the building is concerned. The fan room needs cleaning, and the fine maple floors provided should be thor- oughly cleaned and oiled inmaediately, and scrubbing with water discontinued. WEBSTER SCHOOL. No expensive changes looking toward making this building meet acceptable modem demands should be undertaken. It should be kep]; in as good condition as possible, and abandoned at an early date, as soon as a new and modemly planned laiger build- ing can be provided to take care of the children in this district and most of those now attending the Ritchie School. The following repairs should be made at once: (I) Correct the insanitary conditiQii of the urinal; (2) cut down the sides of the stalls in both toilet rooms, so to give better light and better ventilation; (3) dean out the basement, especially the fan room; (4) retint the walls in a light cream color; (5) oil the floors, and discontinue scrubbing them with water; and (6) guard the building carefully to prevent flres. CENTER SCHOOL. No expensive repairs should be made on this building, and it should be abandoned as soon as the board can command the means to do so. SCHOOL' BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS. 85 MADISON SCHOOL. It is unfortunate that in the reconstruction of the old building the windows were not changed from the old type of windows in adjoining walls of classrooms to the better plan of imilateral lighting. It is probably inadvisable to make these changes now, but the children and teachera will necessarily suffer as a result of this oversight. It is not too late, however, to correct the faults of the toilets and urinals by install- ing modem appliances in a modem way. The white walls of this reconstructed build- ing should be tinted in a very light buff, while the ceilings may either remain white or, better, be toned down so as to forestall glaring lights. It is to be regretted that the assembly room was constructed at great expense with a sloping floor, thereby practically limiting its use to auditorium purposes only. At less expense in constmction and furniture, it might have been made to serve as an auditorium, as a gymnasimn, a study hall, a community entertainment and exhi- bition room, and for other purx)06es. It is inadvisable to put manual training, home economics, or any other kind of important school work in basement rooms, and those classes now situated in the base- ment of this building, or any other school in the city, should be removed therefrom at the earliest possible date. Such work is very important work, and should not be handicapped by being put in unsuitable quarters. WASHINGTON SCHOOL. This building is a duplicate of the old Madison building, and is a monumental demonstration of how not to plan a school editice. It would be poor economy to imdertake a radical reconstmction of this building, and the only thing to do is to use it till such time as the board can get sufficient means to provide a new building in a better location away from the noise, smoke, and dust of the railway yards. CLAY SCHOOL. It would be unwiie to undertake any substantial reconstruction of this building. It diould be kept in as safe and sanitary condition as possible, until it can be displaced with a new building on a larger lot. A few repairs and changes should be made immediately: 1. The hot-air ducts of the old and displaced heating system, leading from the furnace room to the various classrooms, should be carefully and securely sealed in order both to prevent dust and foul air ascending into the classrooms, and to eliminate the very definite fire hazard involved. 2. There should be better and more thorough fireproofing on the joists above the boilers and smoke pipes. The fire drills now used sh ould be continued , and with every added improvement possible. S. The urinal is unsatisfactory, for the slanting slate is too wide and too steep for safety. This should be cut off to a point within 16 inches of the drain, the level cement floor continued to this point, and the iron bar removed. These changes, for obvious reasons, will keep this room in a much better sanitary condition. 4. Certain rooms have erroneously placed desks, and these facts were pointed out to the principal and plans suggested for better arrangements. JEFFERSON BUILDING. An additional window should be set in the east side of each classroom opening I toward the east, and one in each classroom opening toward the west, and the windows on the north and south sides of these rooms should be closed up. I 86 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WHEELING, W. VA. -The desks in the east rooms should all be made to face the south, while those in the west rooms should be made to face the north. Then, if these desks are grouped as closely as practicable to the window side, with eight desks in a row from front to back, in five rows, the pupils will then get light from the left and the teacher will not have to face the light. While this arrangement will not give so much area of glazing to each room as they now have, the light will be much better and the teacher will not have to face the light. The warm-air registers in the floors of the classrooms should be removed and placed in the walls, if possible, about 8 feet above the floor. If this can not be done, a better heating plant of low-pressure steam, regulated by thermostats, should be in- stalled with direct radiation in the rooms. The fan should then be removed and de- pendence placed upon windows for ventilation. When the inspection was made, the ventilation was faulty and the rooms were too hot. This is a good building. With proper care, and the changes suggested, it can be used for many years safely and with satisfaction. UNION SCHOOL. This building is most unfortunately placed so near the steam railway tracks as to cause a great loss of time from noise and suffering from the gas-ladened smoke of passing trains. There are many good features in this building despite bad fenestra- tion . Nothing can be done to get rid of the noise, which will in all probability increase instead of decrease. It would be difficult and expensive to rearrange the windows, and so only the following recommendations are offered : 1. The thermostatic system is out of order, and should be corrected at once, for not only is the health of the teachers and children involved, but also the economic use of fuel. 2. There is a good deal of debris and furniture, some of it not belonging to the school, stored in the basement. All of this not needed should be removed and stored else- where. 3. The toilet seats should be kept in a more sanitary condition, and all flushing apparatus should be thoroughly cleaned and kept in better repair. Some of this apparatus was not working at all. As soon as possible, individual and direct flush toilet seats and enameled urinals should be installed. The former should all be set to face the windows, while the latter should be set directly beneath the window. This will insure better ventilation, a lighter room, and a great saving in water and electricity. HOME ECONOMICS BUILDING. The basement of this building is rather poorly ventilated, and is likely to be damp in summer. The fiu-naces are rather dangerously close to the joists above, and , though gravel has been placed on their tops, great care should be given these in severe weather, when heavy flzing may become necessary, to prevent overheating and consequent danger. HIGH SCHOOL. The high-school building was miserably planned, and beyond that little can be said that will be of any help to the board. In the first place, the lot was totally inade- quate and greatly handicapped l3ie architect. In the second place, there is evidence everywhere that the plans were not submitted to those who know the needs of a mod- em high school, and that no one studied them carefully from the point of view of securing a serviceable and hygienic school building. The lighting is foulty, many of the rooms are badly proportioned, the basement is cut up into dark cubby-holes and passageways, and exterior decoration seems to have been preferred to adequate lighting. SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS. 37 It is a painfully diBappointmg building. Nothing can be done in an economical way to remedy its defects or make it more useful and acceptable, and the youth who* flock to it for many years to come will suffer because no one who knew what they needed was caUed to supervise its planning. The only changes now practicable are a few readjustments of desks and classes so as to conserve the vision of the teachers and children, and a general cleaning up of the basement. LIBRARY. In view of the fact that no member of the survey commission has made a special study of the requirements of a library building, this report discusses only such general questions as those of heating, lighting, etc. In the reading rooms the windows were set so near to the floor that it is impossible to set bookcases under them, and hence a mistake was made both from the point of view of the loss of book space and better illumination. The bottoms of windows for reading rooms should always be well above the level of the eyes of the reader when seated. This is particularly true on the second floor. There the small windows drop almost to the floor line, while the tops are many feet below the ceiling above. It must certainly be true that the upper rooms of this building are very warm in summer, and that adequate ventilation is peculiarly difficult. It seems evident that the plans of this building were not thoroughly studied from the point of view of use, and that much help might have come from calling upon prac- tical librarians for suggestions. LINCOLN SCHOOL. The basement of this building needs cleaning and repairing, especially the cold-air chamber and the door leading to it. The girls' toilet needs better ventilation and lighting. The grounds in the rear should be drained and graveled. The electric l^tB in the domestic science room should be fitted with proper shades to reduce the glare of uncovered bulbs; and the forge better protected to prevent smoke and gas frtxn escaping into the rooms above. The recent additions made to this building were badly placed, because of the cutting off of light from other rooms. No further direct additions to this building should be made. If more room is needed, another building should be constructed on uiother lot, for the heating plant is now insufficient in severe weather for safety^ and further additions would interfere with the lighting, already very bad. V, THE BUILDING PROGRAM. WHY WHEELING NEEDS A SCHOOL BUILDING PROGRAM. The following paragraphs outline the main features of a school building program looking forward over a niunber of years. Action on these proposals should await decision on the more fimdamental need of the Wheeling schools, namely, that of reorganization of the scheme of administration. Nevertheless, one of the serious weaknesses in the school situation has been the lack of a comprehensive and forward-looking building program, guided by expert knowledge of the requirements of a modem school system. Even with a reorganized school board, therefore, the school buildings ^nd equipment will need to be modi- fied in order to make possible all of the improvements suggested in this report. Modifications in the school building situation must necessarily be ffi&de gradually and only after careful study of possible future contingencies. 38 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WHEELING, W. VA. SCHOOL BUILDINGS DO NOT MEASURE UP TO MODERN REQUIREMENTS. Wheeling's school plant is not modem. With the exception of Madison and Union, there has been no new elementary school for 24 years. Five of the 9 elementary schools were built 34 or more years ago. One was built 49 and another 50 years ago. The buildings are old and archaic in construction; in a number of them t^ sanita- tion is bad; and in others the lighting is so inadequate that in scsne States the chil- dren would be forbidden by law to enter them. With few exceptions, the buildings are utterly lacking in modem educational facilities, such as auditoriums, gymnasiums, shops and laboratories, drawing and music rooms » libraries, and playgrounds. IMPORTANCE OF WORK AND PLAY AS WELL AS STUDY IN SCHOOLS. What Wheeling needs primarily is to realize that opportunities for work and play in school are educationally as important as provision for study. There has evidently been an attempt to provide some modem school activities in some schools, but they are very inadequate. One reason is because the public in general does not fully realize that children have always been educated through work and play as well as study, and that they can not be deprived of any of these three things if they are to receive a full, rich education. Fifty years ago, children had opportuxuties for this healthy work and play outside of school BO that it was not necessary for the school to provide anything but classrooms. But during the past 50 years has come the growth of the modem city, with its factories and mills, and office buildings and tenements which go up on all vacant city lots and which have deprived children of the opportunities for the wholesome work and play which are essential elements in their education. The city home or apartment, unlike the farm, with its many opportunities of "learning by doing " can offer few educational opportunities in the way of healthful work which develops the ability to think by attacking problems to be solved. There is no planting and harvesting to be done; few, if any, animals are to be taken care of; and it is a rare city home that has a work- shop or laboratory. Yet children, until recently, have received much of their educ^ tion through the opportunity to handle tools, to take care of animals, and to experi- ment in making and using things. SCHOOLS MUST RECOGNIZE CHANGING COMMUNITY CONDITIONS. But the city not only fails to educate children in the right direction; it educates them in the wrong direction, for the street, with its dangers to the physical and moral life of children, too often becomes their only playground; and street play means education, not in health and strength and wholesome living, but precocious education in all the vicious side of a city's life. For these reasons it has come to be recognized that the city school must not only provide dassrooms, but it must also return to the children the opportunity for the healthful work and play which the home can no longer supply. This means that school buildings must contain not only classrooms, but auditoriimis, gymnasiums, laboratories, drawing and music rooms, shops, libraries, and playgrounds where these activities may be carried on. • The main problem in the building program is to recognize existing buildings and plan new buildings so that the children in each building may have not only classrooms, but modem educational facilities. How is such a program to be carried out within the financial ability of the city? There are two methods of meeting the situation. One is by the traditional method of school organization in which all children are expected to be in school seats at the same time, and if provision is made for special activities, such as shops or cooking rooms, the classrooms remain vacant when such facilities are in use, THE BUILDING PROGRAM. 39 THE WORK-STUDT-FLAY OR PLATOON SCHOOL. The oOifir method is oommonly known as fhe work-ertudy-play or platoon plan now in opefstion in many cities in this country , notably in Pittsburgh, Pa. , where the plaD has been in operation for six yean.^ This plan makes modem educational facilities finanmlly possible for all children by using all parts of the school all the time instead of letting dasBTooms lie idle while i^ope and laboratories are in use. That is, it applies the principle of the balanced load, or multiple use of facilities. Under this plan, a school is divided into two parts, each containing all grades, and while half the school is in dasaroome, the other half is using special facilities. At the end of one or two periods, the group of diildren wlio have been in dassrooms go to special facilities, and the other group goes to the daasroom. This means that only half the usual number of daorooms is needed, i. e., 12 dassrooms in a 24-da8S school. A dassroom costs at the present time $1 6,000 in most parts of the country. Therefore, by using 12 instead of 24 dasorooms $192,000 is saved and released for special activities. Under the work- study-play plan, every child gets the same amoimt of time for the three R's, but he also hae 40 minutes for play a day, 40 minutes of auditorium, and 40 minutes of shop or sdence or drawing. Furthermore, because of the flexibility of the program, the Bcfaod can be adapted to the needs of the child, instead of vice versa. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR A SCHOOL BUILDING PROGRAM. By abandoning 6 old buildings, putting up 3 new buildings, and putting in modem equipment in 3 existing buildings, it is possible for Wheelij^ to have a school plant in whidi every school shall have adequate dassrooms and also an auditorium, gymna- sium, shops, cooking and sewing rooms, sdence laboratories, drawing and music rooms, a library, and kindergarten. And it is possible to do this within the financial UmUsofthecxty, The schools which should be abandoned ultimately are the Ritchie, McKinley, Clay, Jefferson, Center, and Lincoln. This will eliminate the costs of upkeep and out- lays for these buildings, which in the year 1920 amounted to $32,842.77. Wheeling has too many small buildings. The larger the buildings, within limits, the richer the tiurilities that can be given to children; the older and smaller the building, the more expensive it becomes. For example, the per capita cost of the Bitchie School with an enrollment of 510 pupils is $59.10, whereas the per capita cost of Madison with 906 pupils is only $45.35. A summary of recommendations for each school district follows. RITCHIE DISTRICT. Ritchie and McKinley Schools should both be abandoned, as they are old, insani- tary buildings and archaic in construction. Erect in this district a new school build- ing for a 24-claaB school which would house the children in both Ritchie and McKinley. Under the work-study-play plan, it would need 12 classrooms, 2 shops for boys, a domestic science and sewing room for girls, 1 drawing room, 1 music room, 1 mechanical drawing room, 1 library, 1 chemistry laboratory, and 1 physics laboratory. The total cost would be $462,000. Under the traditional plan of school organization, it would be $650,000. This school should be a combination elementary and jimior high school . The high sdiool is so far away and expensive to reach that the children are not likely to go to it from this district, unless their interest is aroused through this preliminary work. The way to increase the enrollment in the high school is by developing modem elementary schools. s Sae Eccoamic Values of the Platoon Type of School Organization, prepared by William F. Kennedy, with the KcKeloy School of Pittsbuigh, as a type illustratioD. 40 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WHEELING, W. VA. CLAY DISTRICT. Clay and Jefferson Schools should be abandoned, as Clay is an old> insanitary building, and Jefferson is too small to maintain economically. Erect a new building for the Clay and Jefferson and the seventh and eighth grade pupils from the Union School, leaving Union as a 6-grade school. This school would also be a 24-cla88 school. The cost would be the same as for the Ritchie School. WEBSTER DISTRICT. Center School should be abandoned and the pupils in Center and Webster housed in the Webster School. If this building is organized on the work-study-play plan, there would be ample room for the children of both schools. There would be 988 children, or a 24-cla6s school. There are 18 classrooms in the building, a manual- training room, and a cooking room. Twelve of the classrooms could be used as class- rooms, one for an auditorium (it was originally built for this piupose), one for a kinder- garten, and the other six for special activity rooms. There is a playground a block and a half away, and a portable gymnasium could be erected there. The cost for equipment for the special activities and for the gymnasium would come to $10,000. Under the traditional plan, 12 additional classrooms would be needed at a cost of $192,000. WASHINGTON DISTRICT. Washington is a well-built school, and though not modern can be made to furnish modem educational facilities for children, if operated on the work-etudy-play plan. Allowing for a kindeigarten and a ninth grade (for this should also be a combination elementary and junior high school), there would be 633 children, or 16 classes in the school. There are 16 rooms; 8 could be used for classrooms and the other 8 for special facilities — 2 shops for boys, 1 drawing room, 1 music room, 1 nature-study room, 1 library, and 2 rooms for an auditorium. The lot to the south of the school should be purchased for an additional playground, and the house used for domestic science and a kindergarten. A portable gymnasium should be erected on the school grounds. The cost of equipment of the special activity rooms would be $9,000, and the gym- nasium $3,500, making a total of $13,500. On the traditional plan, 8 additional class- rooms would be needed at a cost of $128,000, and there is no space in which to erect them. MADISON DISTRICT. Madison School is a comparatively new building, and although unfortunately constructed in many ways, it is superior to many of the buildings. It should be made into a combination elementary and junior high school, which would give an enrollment of about 1,086, or 28 classes. This should be made into a 30-class school. Counting both the old and new buildings, there are 29 classrooms available without counting the manual-training room in the basement. Under the work-study-play plan only 15 classrooms would be needed. The other 13 rooms could be used as follows — 1 chemistry laboratory, 1 physics laboratory, 1 freehand drawing room, 1 mechanical drawing room, 1 music room, 1 sewing room, 1 cooking room, 2 shops for boys, 1 nature study room, 1 library, and 1 kindeigarten. Two rooms could be used for gymnasium for girls. A gymnasium for boys could be constructed between the left wing and the auditorium at a cost of approximately $25,000. The cost of equipment for the special rooms would be $7,500. The total cost, $32,500. Under the traditional plan, 15 extra classrooms would be needed . They would cost $240,000 and there is no space in which to put them up. THE BUILDING PEOGKAM. 41 LINCOLN SCHOOL. This ifl an old, inadequate building, placed inconveniently on a hill, which, if the Wheeling Improvement Association plans materialize, will be used for a national inghway connecting with Greater Wheeling. The building should be abandoned and a new building erected at the foot of the hill near the Negro church. As this is a com- bination elementary and high school, the building would have to be constructed to accommodate 8 elementary classes and 2 high-school classes. Under the work-study- play plan, 4 classrooms would be required for the eliementary school and 2 for the high school. There should also be a chemistry laboratory, a physics laboratory, a shop for boys, 2 shops for girls, a drawing room, a music room, a library, kindeigarten, audito- rium, and gymnasium. All these activities are carried on in the school at the present time, but with very inadequate equipment. A new building of 16 units, at a cost of 116,000 per unit, would be 1256,000. Under the traditional plan, 6 additional claas- looms would be needed and the cost would be 1352,000. Summary of costs o/buUding program. School. Ritchie district, new building Clay district, new building Webster district Washington district Madison district Total white elementary schools Lincoln School Total Cost under work- studv-play plan. $462,000 482,000 10,000 13, WO 32,500 079,500 256,000 1,235,500 Cost under traditional plan. 1650,000 650,000 192,000 128,000 240,000 1,878,000 352,000 2,230,000 THE HIGH SCHOOL. According to the above plan, there will be three combination elementary and junior high schools in the city, one at Ritchie, one at Madison, and one at Washington. This will take the ninth grade from these districts out of the high school, thereby leaving plenty of room for the growth in the high school. Such an arrangement will also doubtless result in arousing among the children in these districts greater interest in going to high school because the junior high school work will stimulate their interest in the things that the high school has to offer. CAN WHEELING AFFORD THE PROPOSED BUILDING PROGRAM? Wheeling can afford the proposed building program. Wheeling's taxable wealth is given at 165,000,000, although it is estimated that on a 100 per cent valuation the taxable wealth of the city would be over $93,000,000. (See report on school finance.) Compared with other cities of the same population, but with even less taxable wealth, the amoui^t of Wheeling's school property ($1 , 071 ,454 . 13) is below the average. Among 45 cities of the same dass it ranks thirty-fourth in the amount of school property. Bayonne, N. J., is also an industrial city of 55,000 population, and its taxable wealth at 100 per cent valuation is $68,485,000. The amount of its school property is $2,524,- 000. In other words, up to the present time, Wheeling has not spent on her public- school plant the amount of money which her wealth justifies. 42 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WHEEUNG, W. VA. BONDING THE CITY. The independent school district of Wheeling is able to bond the city for schools up to$3,270,200. It has outstanding bonds for only $120,000. Inotherwords, thedistrict has a leeway of over $3,000,000 before reaching the limit of bonded indebtedness for schools. There is no reason from a financial standpoint why Wheeling should not carry out a building program which would give all the children of the city the most modem educational advantages. Wheeling can not afford not to give these modem educational advantages to her children. It is said that America is the land of equal opportunity in education, but this does not mean opportunity for uniform education, but opportunity for the devel- opment of the varied gifts of many individuals. Democratic education means variety of opportunity in accordance with the needs of the individual. If Wheeling does not give this variety of opportunity in work and study and play to the children of all its people, then it is failing to tap the reservoirs of power for its coming citizenship. Moreover, it is laying up trouble for itself in the future, for nothing is more serious to any commimity than to have the great mass of people feel balked in their power of self-expression and attainment. VI. THE mCH SCHOOLS. SELECTION OF SUBJECTS AND ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULA. (1) Needs of various groups of pupils should be more definitely served through reorganization of the five curricula now qffered. (2) A scientific curriculum and a fine arts curriculum should probably be added. (3) Requirements as to subjects should be somewhat as follows (many of these are already in effect) : (a) English, two units, first and second year same for all pupils; third and fourth years differentiated to meet needs of (1) pupils in classical and fine arts curricula, (2) pupils in commercial and industrial arts curricula; pupils in other curricula will choose between these two types. (h) Present requirement of 2^ units of mathematics shoidd be limited to classical and scientific curricula; one unit of business arithmetic in conunercial curriculum; one unit of business arithmetic or composite mathematics in the general, industrial, and household arts curricula. (c) Three units of social studies in the general curriculum, one in commercial, and two in all others. American history and civics, one-half unit each, required of all pupils. (d) Science, three units in scientific curricidum; one unit in all others. (e) Four units of foreign language in classical curriculum; two units in fine arts and scientific curricula. (f) Four units of household arts or industrial arts in household arts and industrial arts curricula, respectively; one unit of either in general curriculum. (h) Four units in art or music in fine arts curriculum. (t) Physical training, one-fourth unit each year required of all pupils. (j) Include in each curriculum only the elective subjects appropriate to it. (4) Part-time classes for employed boys and girls should be develoi)ed; also a two-year vocational curriculum preparing for wage earning. THE HIGH SCHOOLS, 48 OLASSROOM WORK AND EXTRA-CURRICULAR ACnVITIES. (1) Attitude of teachers especially commendable; interest and enthusiasm evident in work observed. (2) Effectiveness of instruction may be increased through study and experimen- tadon along the following lines: (a) Better assignment of lessons and direction of study. (b) More supplementary materials and wider application of class work to life situations. (c) More responsibility should be placed on pupils. (d) In daily work and semester examinations, more emphasis should be placed on questions involving comparison, judgment, interpretation, reasoning. (3) The extra-curricular activities (such as literary and debating societies, musical organizations, athletic sports) should be broadened in scope and more definitely utilized for their educational possibilities. ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION. (1) A director 5f each curriculum should be appointed to assist the principal in various ways. (2) Each group of closely related subjects should be oiganized into a department, aad the teachers oiganized under a chairman for study of materials, methods, and special problems. (3) A specially trained and experienced adviser or dean of girls should be appointed; the principal can act in this capacity for boys. (4) Present methods of classifying pupils should be supplemented by the use of intelligence and other educational tests and measurements. (5) Present system of marking on basis of 100 per cent should be changed to system of 4 or 5 letters; or marks may be given only in multiples of 5. (6) A cafeteria under the supei^'ision of the household arts department is needed. (7) The present noon intermission should be abolished, and time for lunch limited to two periods, one-half of the school being scheduled for each period. (8) A skilled teacher, who is also trained in library methods, should be assigned to each high school as librarian, responsible to the principal, to maintain and con- duct a branch library. (9) The industrial arts department should be more adequately housed. (10) The commercial department should be fiunished additional equipment. (11) A well- trained record clerk should give full time to maintaining more com- plete system of records. (12) Definite steps shoidd be taken to increase the high-school attendance. IN GENERAL. (1) A eystem of junior high schools, comprising grades 7,8, and 9, should be estab- lished. (2) A building program, looking toward buildings better adapted to the needa of secondary education, should be planned for a period of years. (3) A special study should be made of the needs of colored pupils, with a view to placing greater emphasis on vocational subjects. (4) The teaching schedules in a few cases are too heavy. 44 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WHEELING, W. VA. Vn. THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, INTRODUCTORY. Every teacher in the elementary schools was visited at least once, usually for a full lesson period; many teachers were visited more than once, and by more than one member of the staff. In preparation for these personal observations educational tests in handwriting, reading, arithmetic, spelling, and vocabulary, were given throughout the school system, so that definite, objective e\ddence was available to supplement the judgments of classroom teaching. In addition to these tests and observations, written lessons, notebooks, examination papers, and other written evi- dence of school work were collected and carefully studied. The report is very adverse. A few teachers are doing excellent work, but on the whole the community is not receiving fair returns for money expended on the ele- mentary schools. REORGANIZATION ON JUNIOR-HIGH-SCHOOL BASia The school system should be reorganized so as to provide public kindergartens: elementary schools of six years; at least three junior high schools, comprising grades 7, 8, and 9; and a senior high school of three years. A modified form of departmental instruction should be adopted for grades 4, 5, and 6. A MODERN COURSE OF STUDY NEEDED. Responsibility for the present course of study, which is wholly unsatisfactory, rests directly^ on the administration, not on the teachers. No attempt has been made to draft a course of study adapted to conditions and needs in Wheeling, or reflecting current ideals in education. Many of the topics now required in arithmetic, grammar, and other subjects should be eliminated. There is no discoverable relationship between the various subjects of instruction, and in general the course is many years behind the best current practice. Civics, elementary science, and illustrative handwork are conspicuous by their absence. The course of study is uniform throughout the city, and no allowances are made for differing degrees of ability among children. The course of study should be entirely reorganized, and based upon the principle of meeting the needs and abilities of children at successive stages of development. The very formal type of work in handwriting, arithmetic, etc., in the first two grades should be eliminated, and for it should be substituted free play, oral language, nature study, modes of expression in the manual arts, and other activities based on the children's experiences. A specialist should be employed to work with the principals and teachers in the construction of a modem curriculum for the Wheeling schools. Too much attention is now given to formal spelling, grammar, and arithmetic; while too little or no attention is given to geography, history, litarature, oral language, illustrative handwork, drawing and music for appreciation, elementary science, supple- mentary reading, civics, physical training, and play. TEACHERS GENERALLY UNPREPARED FOR SERVICE. Only 24 of the 174 teachers in the elementary schools meet reasonable standards of qualifications. Only 12 have had as much as one year of normal-school training after completing the high-school course. About three-fourths of the teachers have had practically nothing more than high-school education, or less. The average term of service in Wheeling is 14.3 years, while the total average ex- perience is 16.1 years, which is very much above the average. This degree of per- THE ELEMENTABY SCHOOLS. 45 manfincy of tenure would be a commendable feature if the teachers were adequately trained; as it is, the children of Wheeling do not have the advantage of teachers who have had good education and adequate professional training for their work. HIGHER STANDARDS OF TEACHING ESSENTIAL. The teachers in the Wheeling elementary schools need training first, and then inspired, intelligent guidance from principals and supervisors. No new teacher should be employed in the elementary schools who has not had a minimuTn of two years of professional training beyond graduation from a standard four-year high-school course. Teachers now in the system should be given a rea- sonable period, say, five years, in which to meet the new standards. To assist them, study classes for teachers should be organized, including possibly extension course from near-by educational institutions. Teachers should be required to continue professional growth and development, but endeavor along such lines should be recognized. They should be permitted to visit other schools at least one week each year. Equal salaries for equal ability, training, and experience should be paid throughout the system. The teaching staff should not be recruited entirely from Wheeling. LACK OF SUPERVISION. There is much confusion of authority in the present plan of supervision; in general, no one seems to know just how much authority he has or whence it comes. The superintendent attempts to visit each teacher five times each year, but visits possible on this plan must be short and perfunctory. Principals are expected to visit 30 minutes each week in each teacher's room; but this is not r^^ularly done, and such visits as are made are rarely followed by conferences. The time of principals is too largely taken up with routine office work, and they are handicapped by lack of clearly defined authority in their own buildings. Practically all of the principals are able school men and women, capable of wise exercise of supervisory authority. The special super^dsors in physical training and drawing are in reality special teachers^ and in some instances are able to secure very little cooperation from the ckasroom teachers. LINES OF AUTHORITY SHOULD BE CLEARLY DEFINED. The present chaotic condition of the supervisory scheme in Wheeling calls for c(HnpIete reoiganization. The superintendent should deal with the classroom teachers through the principals and supervisors. The principal should be held responsible for the work of his school, and should be given full authority, under the superintendent, in the administration and supervision of his school. A special supervisor should be appointed for the primary grades. The supervisors of special subjects, as music, drawing, etc., should probably give more time to direct- ing and assisting the activities of teachers, teaching themselves only for demonstra- tion and when the regular teachers are not prepared. The relations between special supervisors and school principals must be carefully defined. Better cooperation is needed. A bureau of tests and measurements should be established as an aid to the super- vitiory and teaching force. STATUS OF THE SCHOOL PRINCIPAL. The chief function of the principal should be supervision of instruction, and he should be professionally trained for this important work. The principal should be assigned the duty of conducting teachers' meetings for the discussion of school prob- 46 educatio:nal survey of wheblikg, w, va. lems; he should have authority to assign school duties to his teaching staff within prescribed limits; he should nominate teachers for confirmation by the superintendent. GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOLS FAULTY. The classification of pupils in the schools is faulty, as evidenced by the wide range in scores in the various tests, and by the presence of unduly laige proportions of pupils who are too old for their grades. The system of promotions is unsatisfactory, in that a grade below 60 in a single subject sometimes forces a pupil to repeat the work of an entire semester. The plan of having coach teachers is to be commended, but as applied in Wheeling it is inef-* fective and unsuccessful. A bureau of tests and measurements should be organized to secure the data upon which to base a modem scheme of classification, grading, and promotions, to the end that children of nearly equal ability and attainments may be placed together. De- fective and subnormal children should receive special attention. The coach teachers should be specialists, trained in methods of dealing with backward children. Vm. PHYSICAL EDUCATION, HEALTH SUPERVISION, HEALTH TEACHING. Public schools should educate for health, vigor, and sanity. The physical educar tion, medical inspection (health supervision is a better term), and health teaching already established in the Wheeling schools are substantial elements of a program for promoting these objectives. The development of this program is hindered by inertia in the school system and in the public, by unsatisfactory school plants and, perhaps most important, by lack of coherent and effective administrative organization of the schools as a whole. HEALTH EDUCATION SHOULD COORDINATE MANY ACTIVITIES. 1. Develop the beginnings that have been made in physical education, health super- vision, and health teaching into a consistent, complete, and coordinated pn^ram. Ultimately it may be desirable to combine these activities into a single adminiBtrative unit. For the present the physical education and the health supervision should be developed separately, but in logical and helpful coordination. Health teaching, of necessity, is a divided responsibility and must be developed in connection with physi- cal education, health supervision, and, in the higher grades and in the high school, with such subjects as home economics, biology, and civics. 2. Develop the program of physical education along the lines already laid down, including coordination with community recreation. Make the director of physical education responsible to the superintendent of schools not only for the conduct of hia department but also for the selection of his assistants. Appointments should be made only upon his initial recommendation, approved by the superintendent. Develop plans already initiated for preparing teachers in service to take adequate part in the physical education program. See that ''classroom physical training" conforms to hygienic principles; such as, conducted only in well- ventilated rooms; exercises chiefly recreative; needs of individual pupils recognized. 3. Provide a clean, well-lighted and well- ventilated exercise room and a minimnm of 30 square feet per child of actual playgroimd space for each school. Provide, fur- ther, a sufficient number of well-located district playgrounds, large enough to insure for the children and young people of each district such vigorous outdoor games as PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND HEALTH TEACHING. 47 Boccer, baseball, and field and track sparts. The new public-school athletic field provides for city-wide competitions and exhibitions, but is not a substitute for local district playgrounds. 4. Provide for one full-time director of the department of medical inspection di- rectly responsible to the superintendent for the administration of this department. His duties should include the communicable disease work of the schools, health exam- ination of pupils, supervision of the nursing service, sanitary supervision of school plants, supervision of special classes for subnormal and handicapped children, promo- tion of hygienic school management, and, in general, supervision of all school conditions a£fecting the health and growth of pupils. The amount, variety, and thorou^inesB of work involved will require the full time of a competent man. Expand and improve the health examination procedure, provide complete exami- nation for all children entering school, all malnourished children, those suspected of tuberculosis or organic troubles, those engaging in competitive athletics. The examination should include the mental status of pupil and the nervous and emotional CactoiB that condition health. ADEQUATE RECORDS ESSENTIAL TO EFFiaENT WORK. Improve the recording and the reporting. Make the records more efTective as aids to foUow-up work with individual children and as means of analyzing and evalu- ating the work performed. The periodic statistical reports as now made are of littie value except for filing. Provide for an annual, analytjical report showing scope of activities, achievements, obstacles in the way of achievement, and presenting recom- mendations for improvements. There should be periodic reports covering urgent matters. The school nurses are doing very valuable work. Their energies might be conserved , and even more effective work woidd be done, if the objectives of the nursing service were better defined, and if there were more systematic guidance and supervision of the nurses. The mutual responsibility of nurses, principals, and teachers should be more clearly defined. It is desirable ultin:iately that there should be a nurse in every school. The dinector of medical inspection, under definite regulations, should be responsible for the hygiene of school biuldings. The respective duties and responsibilities of the medical inspector, nurses, principal, teachers, and janitors should be defined. The director should be required to report promptiy and accurately upon urgent matters, and the board should lay upon itself the duty of acting promptly upon his recommendations. SUBNORMAL AND HANDICAPPED CHILDREN A SPECIAL PROBLEM. At present there is no provision for the special education of subnormal and handi- capped children, such as anemic and tubercular children, the speech defectives, the cripples, the deaf, the semiblind, and the mental subnormab. A caref id survey should be made under the direction of the medical inspector to determine the number of children requiring special education. The nutrition classes should be increased to include malnourished children. 5. The experimental work of the nurses in health teaching should be encouraged and devdoped. The nutrition classes, both formal and informal, the health talks given by the nurses in connection with their periodic inspections, the inclusion of the weight recoid in the pupil's monthly report and other methods are stimulating interest in health and the practice of health habits by pupils. An effective program of health teaching may be developed through the leadership of the nurses. It must be recog- nized, however, that health teaching is not an exclusive function of the nurses. On the contrary, it is an essential part of the work of every teacher. Time should be pro- vided in the schedule, and all teachers should be prepared for this work. 48 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WHEELING, W. VA. SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF THE fflGH SCHOOL. 6. The administrative responsibility of the principal of the high school should be clearly defined. There shoidd be clear and specific regulations governing his respon- sibility to the superintendent, and his relationship with the director of physical education medical inspector, supervisor of nurses, and the director of home economics. The present plan for administration of physical education including athletics should be maintained and strengthened. The physical-training program in the high school, though correct in principle, should be modified on account of unfavorable physical facilities and the exigencies of the program. This is especially true with respect to the girls. If possible, reorganize the program so as to provide two double periods a week for each class instead of five single periods and place all physical-training classes in the two periods just prior to the noon recess and the two periods just prior to the close of school. The loss of the daily period of exercise would be compensated by the better observance of hygienic considerations. Put into effect the recommendation of the director of physical education for the reconstruction for the boys' locker rooms, toilets, and shower baths. Study carefully the matter of providing better facilities for the girls. There is no prescribed health teaching for the boys. Some incidental instructioii is given in connection with physical training. This should be developed and system- ized . For the girls, health instruction is involved in three required subj ects — ^physical training, home economics, and home nursing. Health teaching in a high school is necessarily a divided responsibility. The special part to be played by each of these agencies should be worked out, and a coordinated program adopted. Furthermore, there should be some plan devised whereby the composite program may be carried out with mutual understanding and cooperation . EL HOME ECONOMICS. Home economics instruction is well established in the white schools, and conditions are favorable for continued development. In accordance with beet practice, special teachers are employed, special rooms and equipment are provided, and the supervisor has opportunity and authority for supervision; hence, a united and well-organized staff of teachers. WEAKNESSES IN PRESENT SCHEME. (1) The course of study is too narrow; insufficient attention given to problems of food and clothing in the home and relative to home budgets, home sanitation, personal accounting, social significance of the home and home making. (2) The course of study is uniform throughout the city, and hence no special con- sideration is given to varying home conditions, needs, and environment. (3) The time allotment in grades 5 to 8, inclusive, is inadequate. (4) The work suffers from the complete lack of handwork in the earlier grades. (5) Special attention should be given to home economics instruction for ov^r-aged girls in grades below the sixth. (6) The coimse in home nursing as now given in ninth grade should be modified so as to emphasize conditions of health rather than of illness and disease, and amount of lecture work should be materially reduced. (7) Food work should be carried beyond individual quantities and recipes, and con- nected more vitally with home problems. HOME BGONOMICS. 49 (8) Seivii^ i»t>bleiii6 should be more varied, intereBting, and adapted to pupil and home needs. (9) Walking distances between schools and home economics centers are too great in some cases. (10) The equipment is not sufficiently varied. (11) Storage fadUties for home economics materials and supplies are badly needed. (12) Booms are needed for instruction in variM>us phases of home management. (13) There is a inngiilM' absence of illustrative and reference material. (14) Laboratories are unattractive. (15) Teachers' schedules require much useless travel about the city. (16) School lunch rooms are badly needed, and should be under the supervision of the home economics department. (17) Home economics instruction has too little practical outcome in the lives and habits of the pupils. There should be an adviser of girls, cooperating closely with the home economics department. (18) Special provision should be made for chOdren suffering noticeably from mal- nutrition. SPECIAL IMPORTANCE OF HOME ECONOMICS IN THE COLORED SCHOOL. Home economics in the colored school has many additional handicaps. The room in which it is taught is not suitable for the work; the equipment is poor and inadequate; the arrangement of equipment is inconvenient; the teaching force is insufficient, even though the pupil enrollment is small. Many N^ro children are retarded; the student mortality is high; the occupations open to colored girls are limited almost entirely to household work of some kind, or to work in industries derived from household activities; hence, the home economics oomses should be especially well organized, the equipment should be good and approach good home conditions, and the teaching vigorous. Additional time should be scheduled for home economics for colored girls. The present attempt to furnish hot lunches should be encouraged and special pro- vision made for serving hot food. Until such time as a new building is secured for the colored school, the home eco- nomics department should be moved into a portable building, which, probably, should be located above the present building. This portable building should be well equipped and supplied with modem household equipment, such as should be found in American homes. X. MANUAL TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. The Wheeling schools are to be commended for the splendid work which is being done in manual training and vocational training within the limits thus far set us. Evidence of a prsdseworthy professional spirit is found in the weekly meetings of the BopernBOT and the entire staff enrolled in an extension course of study and discussion under the auspices of the State university. THE NEXT STEPS FORWARD. (1) Among the improvements to be made probably the first should be to plan a scheme of handwork for all boys and girls, beginning with the lowest grade, and coordinated with the shopwork, drafting, and home economics of the upper elementary and high-school grades. 50 EDUCATIONAL STJKVEY OF WHEELING, W. VA. (2) The problems and projects now in use aie in some cases not well adapted to the interests and capacities of the boys. (3) A splendid variety of shop experiences is available in the hi^-^chool building. Few cities in Wheeling's class o£fer more. Nevertheless, the shops are badly crowded. If the high-school attendance were as large as it should be these facilities would be wholly inadequate. (4) The adoption and carrying out of a junior high school program will make possible the establishing of additional centers offering equal variety to groatly increased num- bers of pupils. (5) The department alroady has the beginnings of equipment for additional shops (machine shop, printing), which can not be utilized until more space is available. (6) Provision should be made as soon as possible for a shop for automobile mechanics. PABT-TIME CLASSES NEEDED. (7) As soon as fiidlities can be provided steps should be taken to establish a scheme of part-time classes for employed boys and girls. The preparation of plans and the immediate direction of this work may well require one-half or more of the time pf one person. (8) A serious weakness in the present situation is the lack of clearly defined rela- tionships between this department and the school system as a whole, and between the special teachers and the school principals. This should all be cleared up in the general reorganization of the school system discussed elsewhere. (9) In general, the special teacher should be responsible to the principal in matters of discipline, program, disposition of pupils, use of building, etc., and responsible to the supervisor in matters of methods of instruction, content of course of study, etc. Cooperation, however, is what is needed. (10) One of the most difficult places to fill in the school system is that of the si>ecial shop teacher, which requires all the teaching ability and knowledge of child develop- ment that any other teaching position does, and in addition demands the mastery of at least the fundamentals of some technical field, as woodworking, printing, pottery^ etc. The teaching staff in Wheeling compares favorably with that of other cities, but needs strengthening on the side of professional preparation and teaching skill. The study class, referred to above, if properly encouraged, should do more to improve conditions in this respect. (11) Provision should be made for more definite vocational guidance service for boys and girls who need it, and for sympathetically following up all boys and girls in their after-school careers, whether they graduate or not. CLOSER COORDINATION WITH REGULAR SCHOOL WORK NEEDED. (12) A more sympathetic attitude toward manual training and vocational work on the part of teachers and principals might result after a more careful consideration of the small proportion of children who complete the school work as now laid down, and who go on to high school and college, and the reasons therefor. (13) There is at present too little understanding of each other's work by both regular and special teachers and almost no vital connection. BDUCAXIONAL SURVEY OF WHEELING, W. VA. 61 n. ART EDUCATION. DEPABTMENTAL TEACHEBS RECOMMENDED. (1) Change the present system of supervising the grade teacher to one of special teachers under the departmental system. One special teacher of art can take care of 16 grade rooms, allowing 2 lessons per week of 40 minutes each, and produce a more acceptable type of work than can be hoped for with supervision. (2) Employ an art teacher for the high school who would be responsible for the teaching in the departmentalized grade rooms, or — ALTERNATE PLAN POSSIBLE. While keeping the present arrangement, make more effective supervision of art through: (1) The supervisor of art in the grades should supervise and not teach. (2) A printed schedule of the supervisor's visits should be sent in advance to each teacher and principal. (3) This schedule should be followed. (4) The lesson should be given on schedule time by the grade teacher without wait- ing for the supervisor. (5) LeasoDB completed since the supervisor's last visit should be ready for inspection. (6) The lesson should proceed in charge of the grade teacher, unless special help is needed. (7) A schedule of teachens' meetings should be published in September. (8) The supervisor of drawing should be informed as to the content of the other school subjects. (9) Keep a card index record of the talented pupils as they are discovered in the grades.* (10) Raise the standard of the grade teacher: (a) Employ only such teachers as have had during the normal-school course train- ing in art and art teaching. (6) Ask that a certain number of teachers now in service take summer-school work in art and the methods of teaching art. (c) Require attendance at teachers' meetings conducted by the supervisor. (11) Employ a teacher of art for the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades and high flchooL (12) Employ a supervisor of industrial arts for the first five grades. FINE ARTS COURSES FOR THE HIGH SCHOOL. (1) Introduce the course in the ninth grade. (2) Make provision for at least three different courses of art in the high school: (a) General course (one or two years): Art appreciation and history. Minimum amount of studio practice work in color, design, crafts, art photography, picture study, and history of art. For girls, the work in design should be applied to the home and the person; for boys, it should connect with the manual training and pottery departments. (6) Elementary drawing: Drawing in pencil and charcoal from objects. Letter- ing— ^this courae shoidd attract the students who will enter the normal schools and the teaching profession. s Tbis syitflm of studying the progress of students of unusual ability has recently been pot In foroe in U»e Pittsburgh public schools by Mr. James C. Boudreau, supervisor of art. 62 EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF WHEELING, W. VA. (c) Advanced drawing: Charcoal, poster design, illustration, title-pages, headings for the school publications. This course for future art students only. The first year that an art course is offered it may be well to begin with the general course, which should, because of its scope, attract all students interested in the subject. A CIRCULAB OF INFORMATION WOULD BE HELPFUL. , (1) A printed course of study in art education should be prepared, containing information as to: UjlS Psychology of the subject. 61 Scope ana aims in public school system: Appreciation, expression. [c) Standards of attainments. Methods of presentation, fe) References to standard texts. Supplies and materials. (2) Copies of these outlines should be furnished to each principal, as well as to each teacher. (3) Illustrated charts showing the progressive steps of type lessons should be placed in some building or room centrally located in the city for the use of the grade teachern. INFLUENCE OF THE ART DEPARTMENT ON BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS. (1) Employ expert advice on the subject of interior and exterior decoration: (a) The selecting of color for the walls of the rooms, halls, and corridorB, with special attention to light and durability as well as color. (6) Place in each claseroom bulletins or display boards to be used in exhibiting class work in penmanship, writing, arithmetic, drawing, etc. Through teachers' and principals' meetings, formulate definite rules consistent with good design to govern the use of such boards, and thus prevent a haphazard pinning of papers and pictures to any available woodwork. (c) Supply each classroom with a few pictures appropriate to the grade and age of the pupils, and eliminate such pictures as are too small to be easily seen by the majority of the class. The principal of the building, the supervisor of art, and the grade teachers should work in harmony to secure the best for the building, and work out a scheme for decorating the corridors with the classroom work of exceptional pupils. {d) Supply aisle boards for the display of groups of objects for drawing. («) Children in the grades should be supplied from the school funds with water-color boxes and bnishes. (2) Place in each building a small library of books on art and on art education. ART EDUCATION AND THE COMMUNITY. (1) Secure exhibitions of original examples of fine and industrial arts work and arrange for classes to make special tripe to the exhibitions under the guidance of the grade teachers. (2) Pictures of examples of architecture, sculpture, and paintings now in Wheeling should be made available for study. (3) Cooperation of the teachers in the grades of bench work, pottery, domestic science, principals of the schools, and the librarian should be sought to perfect a more solid school organization. EOUCAHOKAL SURVEY OF WHEELING, W. VA. 58 Xn. TANGIBLE RESULTS OF THE SURVEY. At least two defiziite actions of the board of education, growing out of consideration of the recommendations of the survey report, may be recorded : REORGANIZATION OF THE BOARD OF EDUCATION. At a meeting of the board held March 29, 1921, a series of resolutions fMroposing amendments to the legislation under which the Wheeling public schools are now apemting were adopted, in accordance with which the number of members would be reduced from 21 to 5, effective in June, 1923, the earliest possible legislative date at which the dianges can be made. On March 30, 1921, the president of the board of education wrote to the Biureau of Education, as foUows: After a series of meetings and conferences the board iinally passed the amendments to the bill j^repared by the Rotary Club, Kiwanis Club, and chamber of commerce, idkich provide for the election of five commissioners at laree at the dtv election of 1923, the term to be six years. At the first election two wilt be elected for six years, two for four yeais^ and one for two years, and the election is to be noniMirtisan and candidates arranged in alphabetical order. The other provision is that the superin- tendent shall appoint all principals, teachers, and other employees of the board, subject to confinnation by the board. At a meeting of the joint committee of the above oiganizations held yesterday ^ese changes were approved unanimously by the members present, so that the bill as now amended goes to the legislature without contention. QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS. On Friday evening, July 22, 1921, the board of education adopted the following resolutions: In order to carry into effect the recommendation of the survey conmiission with respect to raising the standards of qualifications of the teaching staff, the board of education of the school district of Wheeling hereby adopts the following resolutions: Resolved, (1) That hereafter all principal, supervisors, directors, teachers, libra- rians, nurses, clerks, janitors, and other employees (except the clerk of the board) shall be employed, promoted, demoted, transferred, retirea. or dismissed, exclusively upon the written recommendation of the superintendent of schools, subject to the approval of the board. (2) That after July 1, 1921, no new teacher or supervisor shall be employed for service in the high schools who is not a graduate of an accredited four-year colle^ or nniversity course, except that teachers or supervisors in special teclmical subiects omy offer successful experience in the vocations related to such subjects in lieu of two years of such coll^ or university course, provided two years of approved professional training beyond hieh-school graduation be offered. (3)That after July 1 , 1921, no new teacher or supervisor shall be employed for service in the elementary schools who is not a gpraduate of an approved normid school or teachers' coll^;e course consisting of two years' work beyond graduation frcan a standard high school, or, in the case of special trade subjects, who has not had the equivalent of two years of jnrofessional preparation for teaching or supervising tiie subject in question. (4) That after July 1, 1921, to be eligible for a new appointment as principal of a school a candidate should meet the minimum requirements herein set forth, and in addition diould have had not less than five years^ successful experience in teaching, and have completed an approved course of professional preparation in sdiool adminis- tration and supervision. (5) That in tne cases of aU principals, teachers, and supervisors who were employed in the Wheeling public schools during the year ended June, 1921, and reappointed for the ensuing year, the application of the minimum requirements as herein set forth be waive? until Septemoer 1, 1927; and that the superintendent be directed to report on the professional qualifications of all principals, teachers, and supervisors at the regular meeting of the board in September of each year. (6) That after July 1, 1925, no person shall be employed for substitute service who does not meet with the minimum qualifications of regular teachers as set forth in this resolution. - Harvard ijniversiii 'Jb'r.ry of the Graduate of Education DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN. 1921. No. 29 MONTHLY RECORD OF CURRENT EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS SEPTEMBER. 1921 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING omCE I 1921 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PBOCUBED FROIC THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS OOVERNMENT PRINTINQ OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY Harvard oniverslJ^', library of the Graduate School ')f f"fi'i(;.>i<-ion MONTHLY RECORD OF CURRENT EDUCATIONAL PUBUCATIONS. C^mpfled hj the Library Diyisioii, Bureau of Education. CoNTBim. — Bducatifloal history and biography— Current educational conditions— Educational theory and iMuctlce — Educatianal psychology; Cbild study— Educational tests and measurements— Special mettiods of instruction — Special subjects of currlculimi---Kindergarten and primary school— Rural edu- cstim— Secondary education- Teacher training— Teachers' salaries and professional status— Higher edu- cation—School administration— School management— School buildings and groimds— School hygiene and aaoitatian — Sex hygiene— Phsrsical training— Play and recreation— Social aspects of education— Child VBliiare— Religious and church education— Manual and vocational training— Vocational guidance— Home eoGnomics — Commffcial education— Legal education — Medical education — Civic education— Americani* Butioo— Education of service men— Education of women— Negro education— Education of deaf— Excep- ttonal children — Education extension— Libraries and reading— Bureau of Education: Recent publications. NOTE. The record comprises a general survey in bibliographic form of current educational literatiu'e, domestic and foreign, received during the monthly period preceding the date of publication of each issue. This office can not supply the publications listed in this bulletin, other than those expressly designated as publications of the Biu^eau of Education. Books, pamphlets, and periodicals here mentioned may ordinarily be obtained from their respective publishers, either directly or through a dealer, or, in the case of an association publica- tion, from the secretary of the issuing organization. Many of them are available for consultation in various public and institutional libraries. Publications intended for inclusion in this record should be sent to the library of the Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. During July and August the record was not published. The present number accordingly follows in immediate sequence that for May- June, 1921, EDUCATIONAL fflSTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 986. Bumham, WiUiam H. Horace Mann. School and society, 14:109-15, Sep- tember 3, 1921. 987. Fmegan, Thomas E. Free schools; a documentary history of the free school movement in New York state. Albany, The University of the state of New York, 1921. 682 p. plates. 8®. (Vol. I of the fifteenth annual report of the State education department.) Not a systematic history of the devebpment of public education in New York state, but a ooUection of valuable source material on the. subject which is here made accessible to readers and students. 3 4 CUEEENT EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS. 988. Finegan, Thomas E. The township system. A documentar>' history of the endeavor to establish a township school s^nstem in the state of New York from the early periods through the repeal of the township law in 1918. Albany, The University of the state of New York, 1921. 1693 p. plates, tables. 8**. (Vol. I of the fourteenth annual report of the State education department.) 989. Titsgerald, Virginia. A Southern college boy eighty years ago. South Atlantic quarterly, 20:236-46, July 1921. student life at Randolph-Maoon college, Virginia, early in the last century. 990. Indiana university. Indiana university, 1820-1920. Centennial memorial volume. Bloomington, Ind., Indiana university, 1921. 345 p. 8°. (Indi- ana university bulletin, vol. xix, no. 2, February 1921) Contains: 1. D. D. Banta: History of Indiana university, p. 0-113. 2. J. G. Schurman: The American university— today and tomorrow, p. 117-40. 3. A. S. Warthin: The university medical school and the state, p. 157-62. 4. E. P. Lyon: Graduate medical education— experience with the Minnesota plan, p. 163-77. 5. S. M. Ralston: The Thomas Jefferson theory of educa- tion, p. 179-91. 6. Evans Woollen: The state university and its service to business, p. 193-201. 7. E. A. Birge: Thestateuniversityat the opening of the twentieth century, p. 203-22. 8. Paul Shorey: The functions of the state university, p. 223-41. 9. J. R. Angell: The obligation of the state toward sdentiOc research, p. 243-56. 10. Roscoe Found: The future of legal education, p. 257-72. 11. R. A. MiUikan: A present need in American professional education, p. 273-79. 12. Sir R. A. Falconer: The spiritual idea of the university, p. 293-304. . 991. SloBson, Edwin E. The American spirit in education; a chronicle of great teachers. New Haven, Yale university press [etc.] 1921. x, 309 p. plates. 8**. (The chronicles of America series, vol. 33) Contents.— 1. School days in early New England.— 2. Schools in New Netherland.— 3. Schools of the middle and southern colonies. — I. The colonial collie.— 5. Franklin and practical education.— 6. Jefferson and state education.— 7. Washington and national education.— 8. Schools of the young republic.— 9. Horace Mann and the American school.— 10. De Witt Clinton and the free school.— 11. The westward movement.— 12. The rise of the state university.— 13. Catholic education in America.— 14. The rise of technical education.— Iff. The MoniU act and what came of it.— 16. Women knocking at the college door.— 17. The new edhcation.- 18. The university of today. CURRENT EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS. GENERAL AND UNITED STATES. 992. Bonner, H. B. Waste in education. American school board journal, 63:33-35, 124, July 1921. Discusses irregular attendance, repetition of school work, and withdrawal from school. 993. Capen, Samuel Paul. The government and education. Educational review, 62:127-33, September 1921. Dr. Capen here says that the creative Interests of the nation— industrial production, sdentiflo inquiry, social welfare, and education— should be clearly identified from the defensive and conservative interests, which are fundamentally different. The creative interests flourish when supplied with knowledge, intellectual guidance, leadership, and languish when subjected to con- trol or coercion. 994. Furst, Clyde. The educational utility of the great foundations. Educational review, 62:98-106, September 1921. The writer concludes that 'Uhe adequate resources, able guidance, and skilled workers of the foundations make possible a freedom and indepoidence, a comprehensiveness and con- tinuity, not otherwise attainable, and that these characteristics not only meet real public needs, but also encourage and aid other efforts for the public welfare.'' 995. Georgia illiteracy commiflBion. Report ... to the General aasembly of the state of Georgia for the year ending December 31, 1920. [Atlanta, Ga., 1921] 17 p. illus. 8*». With this is bound: Lessons in reading, writing, arithmetic, for special school work in Georgia; prepared by M. L. Brittain. Atlanta, Ga., 1920. 24 p. CUBBENT EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS. 5 996. Idler, Paul G. Education in Porto Rico: problems and progress. American re\'iew of reviews, 64:301-10, September 1921. In thlB article, the commissioner of education of Porto Rioo gives a comprehensive account of current educational conditions in the island. 997. Bolfe, Alfred a. What do boys know? Atlantic monthly, 128:69-61, July 1921. Discusses the results of inf(»rniation tests given to boys in a large preparatory school. 998. Tigert, John J. Eradication of illiteracy. School life, 7:1-2, 12, September 1921. An address delivered before the Illiteracy section of the National education association, Des Moines, July 1921. 999. Vincent, George B. The Rockefeller foundation. A re\'iew for 1920; the program for 1921. New York, 1921. 47p. illus. 8*. 1000. Yanes, Francis J. Education section of the Pan American union. Bulletin of the Pan American union, 53:281-84, September 1921. The education section of the Pan American union promotes the exchange of students and professors between Latin- American countries and the United States and fosters other educa- tional relations with these countries. FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 1001. Ghampenois, Julien J. University reform in France. Educational review, 62:107-15, September 1921. 1002. Fleming, Daniel Johnson. Schools with a message in India. London, New York [etc.] Humphrey Milford, Oxford university press, 1921. 209p. plates. 12°. A contribution to the first-hand informati(m available on the problemH of popular education in India. The author, Prof. Fleming, of the department of foreign service of Union theological seminary, New York, was American representative on the commission on vlUage education in India, which was sent abroad by the combined missionary societies of Great Britain and North America during the year ending June, 1020. 1003. Koritchoner, Ida. Forces in German education. Survey, 46:596-97, August 16, 1921. Constructive reforms in German education discussed. Pedagogical experiments analyzed. 1004. Lecldre, L^on. L'enseignement sup^rieur en Belgique (1919-1921). Revue Internationale de I'enseignement, 41:237-43, July- August 1921. 1005. langy Ping. The present educational conditions in China. Pedagogical sem- inary, 28:116-38, June 1921. Writer says that modem education in China is still in its infancy, as the problem of providing educational facilities for a population of 400,000,000 is so immense and complicated. 1006. Mackenzie, A. H. State examinations in Scottish schools. Calcutta, Super- intendent government printing, 1921. 3 p. 1., 45 p. 8°. (Bureau of edu- cation, India. Pamphlet no. 9.) 1007. Montgomery, James A. Jerusalem as an educational center. Menorah journal, 7:103^7, June 1921. 1008. Orb, William. A recent departure in education in Germany. School life, 6:1-2, May 15,*1921. People's high schools have been established to develop the habit of independent thought— to teach how to think and to give the material for thought. 1009. Koqnes, P. La r^forme scolaire en AUemagne. Revue universitaire, 30: 101-14, July 1921. 1010. Boudidre, Louise. Quelques reflexions au sujet de I'enseignement du fran^ais. Revue p^dagogique, 79:11-24, July 1921. ^011. Sokolov, Boris. The tragedy of child life under bolshevism. Current his- tory, 14:664-«7, July 1921. Sducatlonal and social candition of children under the Bolshevist regime. 6 CUBBENT EDUCATIONAL PUBUCATIONS. 1012. dpiSeky Ferd. L'enseignement tch^o-slovaque: son paas^ et son avenir. — ^I. Revue intemationale de renBeignement, 41:225-36, July- August 1921. To be continued. 1013. Stepanek, B. The spirit of Jan Amoe Comeniujs in the education of the Czechoslovak Republic. School and society, 13:651-54, June 11, 1921. The identity of ideals of America and the Czechoslovak Republic in the sphere of educatioa is a guarantee that the bonds of friendship which unite the two countries will be increasingly strengthened. 1014. Zentralinstitut fiir erziehong und unterriclit, Berlin. Die deutsche Bchulreform; ein handbuch fiir die reichsschulkonferenz. Leipzig, Quelle & Meyer [1920] xii, 251, 68p. 8°. Outlines the tc^ics to be discussed at the Oerman educational conference (reichsschulkon- ferenz) of 1920. 1015. Die reichsschulkonferenz in ihren ergebnissen. Leipzig, Quelle & Meyer [1920] 226p. 8°. Sketches concisely the main results of the German educational conference (reichsschulkan- ferenz) held June 11-19, 1920, to consider measures of reform for the German schools. EDUCATIONAL THEORY AND PRACTICE. 1016. Eilpatrick, Wllliazn H. The meaning of method. Journal of educational method, 1:14-19, September 1921. 1017. Miller, Dickizison S. The Antioch idea. Nation, 113:263, September 7, 1921. An appreciation of the new plan of education inaugurated at Antioch college, Yellow Springs, Ohio, by Prasident Arthur £. Morgan. 1018. Sharp, Dallas Lore. Education for authority. Atlantic monthly, 128:13-21, July 1921. Writer says that "education for authority must both precede and continue with conventional, education; equal place made for chores, great books, simple people, and the out-of-doors, with that which is made for texts, and recitations, and schoolroom drlU." EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY; CfflLD STUDY. 1019. Baldwin, Bird T. The physical growth of children from birth to maturity. Iowa City, The Univereity, 1921. 411 p. illua., charts, tables. 8°. (Uni- versity of Iowa. Studies in child welfare, vol. 1, no. 1. June 1, 1921.) Annotated bibliography: p. 32(M02. Presents data and results applicable to the formulation of standard norms in physical growth of children, with a view to establishing a basic science for allied investigations in mental, edu- cational, social, and moral development and clinical studies In nutrition. 1020. Freeland, George E. A year's study of the daily learning of six children. Pedagogical seminary, 28:97-115, June 1921. In the plan of study for this test typewriting was choesen; the touch system, with the keyboard entirely hidden from sight was adhered to. 1021. Munaon, Edward L. The management of men; a handbook on the syste- matic development of morale and the control of human behavior. New York, H. Holt and company, 1921. xiii, 801 p. diagrs. 8°. Gives the results of the experience of the chief of the Morale branch of the general staff of the United Statas army. While the book is written from the military standpoint, perhaps indus- trial morale will be the greatest field of usefulness of the principles brought out. 1022. Packer, Paul C. and Moehlman, Arthur B. A preliminary study of stand- ards of growth in the Detroit public schools; with an introduction by Stuart A. Courtis. Detroit, Mich., Board of education, 1921. 46 p. diagrs., tables. 8°. (Detroit educational bulletin. Research buUetin, no. 5. June 1921.) 1023. Tomkins, Ernest. Stammering studies. Pedagogical seminary, 28:161-70, June 1921. A discussion of J. M. Fletcher's "An experimental study of stuttering," published in the American Journal of pS3rchology, April, 1914, v. 25, which the writer says excels any con- tribution on the subject of stammering either in this country or abroad. CURRENT EDUCATIONAL. PUBLICATIONS. 7 EDUCATIONAL TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS. 1024. California. University. Department of education. Meaauring clasB- room products in Berkeley. Sections 1 and 2. Directed by Cyrus D. Mead. Berkeley, University of California press, 1921. 108 p. tables, diagrs. 8°. (University of California. Department of education. Bureau of research in education. Study no. 1, May 1, 1921) Sdentific studies of results in the Berkeley, Calif., schools in writing, spelling, reading, arith- metic, English composition, and geography. 1025. Colvin, Stephen S. The use of intelligence tests. Educational review, 62:134-48, September 1921. Continues the account of Dr. Colvln's investigations with tnteUigence tests at Brown univer- sity, begun in the Educational review for May, 1920. Both articles show the results from the Colvin tests in comparison with the Thomdike and Army tests. 1026. Cummins, Bobert A. Educational measuring sticks and their uses. Ameri- can school board journal, 63:33-35, August 1921. I 1027. Estabrook, Arthur H. The biological bearing of army mental tests. Social hygiene, 7:279-84, July 1921. - I 1028. Haggerty, M. E. Haggerty reading examination. Manual of directions I for sigma 1 and sigma 3. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y., World book company, 1921. 48 p. 12°. 1029. Kelley, Truman L. and Terman, Lewis M. Dr. Rumrs criticism of mental I test methods. Journal of philosophy, 18:459-65, August 18, 1921. An answer to a criticism by Dr. B. Ruml, in the Journal, vol. 17, p. 57-41. Dr. Ruml chanus terized the results of mental tests a.s "astonishingly meagre In theoretical value." 1030. Hadsen, I. N. Educational research and statistics; interpreting achievement in school in tenns of intelligence. School and society, 14 :59-60, July 30, 1921. Shows three important sources of error in interpreting the results of teaching in a given class in terms of educational tests alone. 1031. Thomson, Godfrey H. A rating scale for teaching ability in students. Jour- nal of experimental pedagogy (I/ondon) 6:76-82, June 1921. Discusses the value of the American army rating scale and its applicability to English col- legiate conditions. 1032. Terkes, Bobert M., ed. Psychological examining in the United States army. Washington, Government printing office, 1921. vi, 890 p. plates, charts, tables. 4°. (Memoirs of the National academy of sciences, vol. XV. This oflQcial report of the Division of psychology of the Office of the Surgeon general, U. S. army, gives a complete account of the history, methods, and results of psychologioil examining in the army. SPECIAL METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. VISUAL INSTRUCTION. 1033. Eastman, Dolph. The public school as the neighborhood movie theater. • Educational film magazine, 5:8-0, 22, 24, June 1921. As the screen gradually becomes the people's teacher, the public school and not the church should be the movie unit of the community. 1034. Perkins, F. W. The United States Agriculture Department movie work. Educational film magzine, 6:3, 5, August 1921. Be0um4 of its many film activities. Mcve than 130 subjects and 600 prints are in active circu- lation, which are being distributed to schools, colleges, churches, and other non theatrical insti- tutitos. 1035. Sawarkar, D. S. Visual instruction in Baroda. Calcutta, Superintendent government printing, 1920. 2 p. 1., 3p. 8®. (Bureau of education, India. Pamphlet no. 10.) 1036. Vaughan, WilUam J. Combined churches give community mo^de shows. Educational film magazine, 6:9, August 1921. Methodist and Presbyterian members get together in a village of 1,300 (N ew Providence, N.J.) and orsaxiize a community service organization. 8 CUEBENT EDUCATIONAL. PUBLICATIONS, OTHER METHODa 1037. Every child his own educator. " Teacher* s world" interview with the origi- nator of the Dal ton laboratory plan. Teacher's world (London) 25:569, 571, July 6, 1921. This article presents a portrait of Miss Helen Parkhurst; also an interview with her as origi- nator of the Dalton plan. 1038. Knappen, Theodore M. Mastering the arts of life, as exemplified in a new school. Atlantic monthly, 128:87-96, July 1921. Describes the work of the Mcx'aine Park school at Dasrton, Ohio. 1039. Parkhurst, Helen. The Dalton plan. Times (London) Educational supple- ment, 11:297-98, 315-16, 321-22, 333^34, 347, 357-58, July 2, 9, 16, 23, 30, August 6, 1921. The Dalton-laboratory plan described in this series of six articles is a scheme of educational reorganization applicable to the school work of pupils ftom 8 to 17 years of age in the lower and secondary schools. The plan was first tried as an experiment in an ungraded sdiool for crippled children; later it was tried successfully in secondary day schools. The name Dalton is that of the American city where the plan was first attempted as an experiment In a public secondary school. SPECIAL SUBJECTS OF CURRICULUM. SPELLING. 1040. Weseen, Maurice H. Can spelling be taught? American education, 24: 444-49, June 1921. The conclusion of the article is that it would be presumptuous to claim that spelling can be taught, but it is certain it can be learned. ENGLISH AND COMPOSITION. 1041. HopMnB, Edwin M. Should English teachers teach? Education, 42:12-18, September 1921. Discusses the overloading of English teachers with work not properly belonging to their department. 1042. HoBic, James F. An experiment in cooperation. I — Launching the project. Journal of educational method, 1:20-23, September 1921. First article of a series, describing an experiment in English teaching in selected public schooils of Chicago. 1043. TomMnaon, W. S. The teaching of English; a new approach. Oxford, Clarendon press, 1921. 229p. 12°. ANCIENT CLASSICS. 1044. Coolidge, Calvin. The classics for America. School life, 7:1, 15-16, Sep« tember 1921. An address delivered before the American classical league, at Philadelphia, July 7, 1921. 1045. Houston, Percy Hazen. The humanist and progress. North American review, 214:401-9, September 1921. As a moralist and critic, the humanist strives to create a large body of dear-thinking men, who in turn may exert an even larger influence upon the current of events. That end he per- ceives can best be brought nearer through the medium of a rightly di rected system of educaUan, wherein the humanities may find again a central place. 1046. Showerman, Grant. Science and humanism. School and society, 14: 85-87, August 20, 1921. MODERN LANGUAGES. 1047. Palmer, Harold E. The principles of language-study. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y., World book company, 1921. 186 p. 12^. Discusses the methods by which a foreign language may successfully be acquired, and tells fix* what ends our spontaneous and our studial capacities should be employed in this connection. OTJBaaENT EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS. 9 MATHEMATICS. 1048. Kellog^g, O. D. A decade of American mathematics. Science, n. s. 53: 541-48, June 17, 1921. A sketch of the progress of mathematics in this country during the decade. SCIENCE. 1049. Ijovelace, B. F. Some present aspects of chemistry in the United States. Science, n. 6. 54:13^-46, August 19, 1921. Emphaslzos the demand for chemists for the industries, and the necessity of educating men for this work in the universities. 1050. Wenrich, D. H. The courses in general zoology : methods of teaching. Science, n. s. 54:120-23, August 12, 1921. Various methods of teaching described. Emphasizes objective studies handled in the form of problems based upon the inductive method. Work in University of Pennsylvania cited. GEOGRAPHY. 1051. Selwood, E. H. The first area in local geography. Journal of experimental pedagogy (London) 6:89-99, June 1921. Methods of teaching geography in schools of Birmingham, England. 1052. Viflher, Stephen S. Aids to teaching climate. Geographical teacher (Lon- don) ll:45-n51, Summer, 1921. HISTORY. 1053. Prescott, Delia B. A day in a colonial home, ed. by John Cotton Dana. Boston, Marshall Jones company, 1921. xiv, 70p. plates, illus. 12°. A story of colonial life as illustrated by a colonial kitchen established in the Newark, N. J., Museum for the instruction of school children and others. Directions are given for building a similar kitchen in school, library, or museum. 1054; WellB, H. Q-. History for everybody: a postscript to **The Outline of history." Yale review, 10:673-704, July 1921. Also in Fortnightly review, 108:887-910, June 1921. Mr. Wells here vigorously defends his Outline against criticisms coming from various quarters. Regarding the study of general history as a necessary part of any properly conceived education, he urges its introduction in to the schools and the preparation of a textbook in the subject adapted to school use. Ginn and company, of Boston, Mass., have just undertaken to meet this need by publishing a new text, "A General history of Europe," by J. H. Robinson and J. H. Breasted, which aims to present an ordered, general account of man's career on earth in one volume without sacrificing historical unity. MUSIC. 1055. Beattie, J. W. The music supervisor and the public. School music, 22:17, 20-25, May 1921. It is by convincing himself of the value of music and then demonstrating to the public his bdiefs that the music sui>ervlsor will be accorded the prominence due him. 1056. Jaques-Dalcroze, Eznile. Rhythm, music and education; tr. from the French by Harold F. Rubinstein. New York and London, G. P. Putnam's sons, 1921. xvii, 334p. musical sup., 16p. front, (port.) plates. 8°. Contains a series of papers written by Jaques-Dalcroze at various periods from 1898 to 1919, illustrating the development of his views on eurhythmies, with author's preface for this edition. 1057. Wilson-Dorrett, OUve B. Language of music interpreted from the child's viewpoint. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y., World book company, 1921. xxi, 296p. music. 12°. (Play school series, ed. by C. W. Hetherington.) Shows how to teach the written musical language to children by means of colors and by the use of the play impulse in games^ etc. 66833°— 21 2 10 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL PUBUCATIONS. KINDERGARTEN AND PRIMARY SCHOOL. 1058. Cooper, Nellie. How to teach the primary grades. Chicago, A. Flanagan company, 1920. 304p. 12°. 1059. Gesell, Arnold. Kindergarten control of school entrance. Kindergarten primary magazine, 33:295-98, June 1921. Given before the International kindergarten union at Detroit, Mich., May, 1021. 1060. Baainuaaen, Vilhelzn. Child psychology. London, Copenhagen [etc.] Gyldendal [1920] 3v. 12°. Contents.— I. Development in the first four years. — II. The kindergarten oliild; its oonoep* . . tion of life and its mental powers.— III. The kindergarten child: thou^t, imagination and feel- ing; will and morale. "Literature": V. 1, p. 165-66; V. 2, p. 137-39. Translated from the Danish by David Pritohard. 1061. Bies, A. C. The significance of movement, interest, and discipline in child- hood, education. Kindergarten and first grade, 6:221-25, June 1921. study of the motor acts of chUdren. RURAL EDUCATION. 1062. Bacon, George W. The country, school — then and now. Survey, 46:585-90, August 16, 1921. Discusses the financing of the public schools; renaissance of the country school; teachers' salaries, etc. A retrospect of conditions, and a study of conditions to-day in rural schools. 1063. Fogarty, W. S. The effectual ''stirring up" of a county to consolidate its rural schools. American city, 25:201-4, September 1921. By the superintendent of Preble county schools, Eaton, Ohio, telling how consolidation has improved the rural schools in his county. 1064. Beavis, George H. Factors controlling attendance in rural schools. New York City, Teachers College, (\)lumbia university, 1920. 69 p. 8°. (Teach- ers college, Columbia university. Contributions to education, no. 108) 1065. Sargent, C. G. Consolidated schools of the mountains, valleys and plains of Colorado. Fort Collins, Colo., Colorado agricultural college, 1921. 60p. illus. S°. (Colorado agricultural college bulletin, series zxi, no. 5, June 1921) SECONDARY EDUCATION. 1066. Cleveland. Board of education. Give yourself a fair start. Gro to high school — what it is; why it pays. Cleveland, Ohio, Board of education, 1921. 48p. illus. 8*^. 1067. Borem., S. O. Have we done.it? Junior high clearing house (Sioux City, Iowa) 1:3^13, March-April 1921. A review of what has been learned about junior high schools. 1068. Stout, John Elbert. The development of high-school curricula in the north central states from 1860 to 1918. Chicago, 111., The University of Chicago [1921 1 xi, 322p. 8°. (^Supplementary' educational monographs, pub. in conjunction with the School review and the Elementary school journal, vol. iii, no. 3, whole no. 15) Bibliography: p. 292-316. TEACHER TRAINING. 1069. Bane, Charles L. The Wesleyan plan of observation and student-teaching. Training school quarterly, 8:338-41, July-September 1921. Describes the method of conducting directed observation and supervised student-teaching in the demonstration school of Ohio Wesleyan imiversity, Delaware, Ohio. CURRENT EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS. 11 1070. Cameron, R. G. An experiment in practice teaching in rural schoole. School- ing (Teachers' college, Sydney, N. S. W.) 4:109-17, May 1921. 1071. I«einon, A. C. Training teachers for leadership — The responsibility of the • higher institutions of learning. Inter-mountain educator, 16:440-44, June 1921. America's great need is for leadership in things worth while. 1072. liietzinaiiii, W. Fachwissenschaftliche didaktik an der univensitat. Monat- schrift fiir hShere schulen, 20:155-61, May-June 1921. 1073. Roberts, Maxy K. Student life at Teachers college. American journal of nursing, 21:782-86, August 1921. student life and activities at Teachers college, Columbia university, New York City. 1074. Wright, Frank L. The training school. Greeley, Col., State teachers college, 1921. 80p. 12°. (Colorado state teachers college bulletin, ser. xxi, June, 1921, no. 3) Section six of the Educational survey of Colorado State teachers collie. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND PROFESSIONAL STATUS. 1075. Beals, E. E. Men teachers leaving prt^ession for reasons other than financial; some rarely discussed factors which are forcing men out of the teaching profession. American school board journal, 63:39-40, August 1921. Names considerations of tenure, promotion, and prestige and influence of position as factors which deter men from entering the teaching profession. 1076. Elnight, Frederic B. awl Franzen, Raymond H. Personnel management of the teaching staff. American school board journal, 63:36-37, July; 43-45, August 1921. 1077. Luckey, 6. W. A. The sabbatical year or leave of absence of teachers in service for study and travel. School and society, 14:115-20, September 3, 1921. 1078. National education asBociation. Committee on tenure. Teachers' tenure. School and society, 14:129-36, September 3, 1921. Report of the Committee on tenure presented at the meeting of the National education asso- ciation, Des Moines, la., July, 1921, by Miss Charl O. Williams, chairman. 1079. Ortman, E. J. Teacher councils. Chicago schools journal, 3:261-^6, May 1921. What the organization is and what it attempts to do. 1080. Teaching versus business. By a college professor. North American review, 214:21-33, July 1921. Discusses the advantages of the teaching profession. HIGHER EDUCATION. 1081. Aflsociation of land-grant colleges. Proceedings of the 34th annual con- vention, held at Springfield, Mass., October 19-22, 1920. Burlington, Vt., Free press printing company, 1921. 300p. 8**. (J. L. Hills, secretary, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.) Contains: 1. Samuel Avery: Our present college problems, p. 21-28. 2. W. W. Charters: Improvement of college training, p. 28-^. 3. £. T. Meredith: Cooperative relations in agri- cultural development, p. 32-i39. 4. A. C. True: Committee rep(Ht on improvement of college teaching in vocational subjects, p. 67-79. 5. R. L. Watts: What can be done to improve the teaching methods of the present stafT? p. 79-84. 6. E. W. Allen: Effects of the war on research in agriculture, p. 91-96. 7. L. S. Hawkins: Training teachers of vocational agriculture through the land-grant colleges, p. 159-62. 8. A. R. Mann: The opportunity of the land-grant coUege in the preparation of teachers of vocational and secondary agriculture, p. 162-^. 9. J. M. D. Bell: Cooperation with industries by the Massachusetts Institute of technology, p. 167-72. 10. D. S. Kimball: Industrial problems and engineering education, p. 197-202. 11. A. A. Potter: Administration of engineering divisions at land-grant institutions, p. 212-15. 12. Anna E. Richardson: Home-making teachers— training courses, p. 268-74. 12 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS. 1082^ Andrews, M. B. How to work your way through college. Greensboro, North Carolina, [J. J. Stone & co.] 1921. 63p. 8°. 1083. Angell, James Rowland. The inaugural address of the president of Yale university, June 22, 1921. Yale alumni weekly, 30:1087-89, July 8, 1921. Also in part in School and society, 14:1-5, July 2, 1021. 1084. Chamberlin, Thomas C. Letter from Professor Chamberlin on faculty partici- pation in university government. School and society, 13:691-94, June 18, 1921. 1085. Conference on methods of college standardization. Addresses at a con- ference called jointly by the National conference committee on standards of colleges and secondary schools and the American council on education, held at Washington, D. C, May 6, 1921. Educational record, 2:81-122, July 1921. Contains: 1. Clyde Furst: Standards in education, p. 83-01. 2. K. C. Babcock: The pres- ent standards of voluntary associations, p. 92-00. 3. O. F. Zook: Present standards of state departments of education and state universities, p. 100-3. 4. E. A. Pace: Present standards of the Catholic educational association, p. 104-6. 5. R. L. Kelly: Present standards of Protestant church boards of education, p. 107-13. 6. J. H. Kirkland: Objectives of stand- ardization of higher institutions, p. n6-22. 1086. Cunliffe, John W. A union of universities. Forum, 66:42^7, July 1921. Discusses the aims and activities of the American university union In Europe and the Amo:- ican council on education. 1087. Hart, Walter M. The spirit of scholarship. University of California chron- icle, 23:237-50, July 1921. Says that our universities are the great creators and custodians of the spirit of scholarship. Work of the ITniverslty of California. 1088. Institute of international education. Educational facilities in the United States for South African students. Prepared by the Federation of South African students in America. Issued by the Institute. New York, 1921. 23p. double map. 8°. (Its Bulletin no. 4. Second series) 1089. . Guide book for foreign students in the United States. New York, July 1, lt)21. 97p. fold, charts. 8°. {Its Bulletin no. 5. Second series) A concise presentation of the information required by foreign students on the general organ- isation of education in the United States, on undergraduate and graduate work in colleges and universities, on professional education, women's coUegqs, college life and living conditions, etc. The pamphlet also contains a sketch of the principal foreign student organizations, and a tab- ular summary of foreign students in the United States. 1090. Kellogg, Vernon. The university and research. Science, n. s. 54:19-23, Julys, 1921. Says that research work and teaching are inseparable from, and indispensable to, each other in a real university. 1091. Ma88€u;huBetts agiicultiiral college. Massachusetts agricultural college in the war. Amherst, Mass., Massachusetts agricultural college, 1921. 203p. front., plates. 8**. 1092. Merrill, W. A. The government of universities. University of California chronicle, 23:343-54, July 1921. Shows the evolution of college and university government in the United States. 1093. Miller, Dickinson S. The great college illusion. New republic, 27:101-6, June 22, 1921. Says that the great college illusion is "the faith that the accumulation of buildings, 'ooarses/ degrees, and students characteristic of the last 50 srears is a progress in education." Criticises college methods and systems. OUBBSNT SDUGATIONAIi PUBUGATIONS. 18 KNM:. JCozttliison, CaxL College men b^und priBcm walls. School and society, 13:63^^10, June 4, 1921. Twoporoent of the deqientecriiiiinata in time Urge stoteB are ooUege^rmined tndividu&ls. 1096. Pajne, A. F. Merits and defects of present practices of cooperation between universities and industry. School and society, 13:607-13, May 28. 19? i The dose oooperation which exists between the oniTefSity end asricuiture and the other fleUs of taonuiii endeavor is laokiog in the relations between oniveraitleB and industry. A scheme of eoaperati(Mi is fonnnlated. 1096. Powell, B. S. The alanning bigness ci oar univeraities. School and society, 13:654-57, June 11, 1921. Tte writer cells attentloD to the difflcoltles which beset universities and colleges and the evils which have grown up along with them. 1097. Biggs, Edward G. Radicalism in our colleges. Forum, 66:197-209, Sep- tember 1921. To offset the teachings of the propegandists of radicalism in our colleges, tlie writer suggesU that we should have from the outside world public speakers and writers to contradict by counter- proof the tyi>e of speaker now Infesting some of the institutions of higher education. 1098. Thompson, W. O. The college graduate in modem life. Indiana alumni quarterly, 8:269-85, July 1921. OommenoeBMnt addrcs at Indiana university, June, 1921. Disoases edncattai in general; the college as a center of loyalty to the nation; influence of college graduates in the world of affairs. 1099. TnftB, JameA H. Dr. Angell, the new president of Yale. World's work, 42: 387-tOO, August 1921. An appreciation of the life and labors of Dr. Angell. Illustrated. SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION. 1100. Iowa. Department of puhlic instruction. Summary of standards and equipment for approved graded and high schools. Better American schools for American children. Rev. by F. A. Welch. Des Moines, State of Iowa, 1921. «lp. 8«. 1101. Jones, B. W. School revenues: sources, distribution, limitations. American school board journal, 63: 38-41, 123, July 1921. 1102. Miller, WilliaDL T. The danger in novelties. American school board journal, 62:32, 119, June 1921. Writer advises that novelties be introduced gradually in schools selected to give as many different types of experience as possible. 1103. Pratt, O. C. The problem of school finance. Elementary school journal, 21:744-54, June 1921. 1104. Sehols, Paul H. The school budget. American school board journal, 63: 49-50, 121, August; 38-39, Sexrtember 1921. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 1105. McClure, Worth. Professionalizing the prindpalship. Elementary school journal, 21:735-43, June 1921. Paper presents evidence that the present tendency is toward prof essionalldeals and standards. SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS. 1106. Burgess, W. B. Building costs in 1921. American school board journal, 62:37-^ June 1921. It is the belief of the writer that the general level of building costs has not yet reached its lowest point. 14 CUBBENT EDUCATIONAL. PUBLICATIONS. 1107. California. Univeraity. Department of education. A Bchool building survey and schoolhouaing program for Napa, California. Directed by Frank W. Hart. [Berkeley, University of California press, 1921] 64p. tables, charts, map. 8°. (University of California. Department of education. Bureau of research in education. Study no. 2, April 1, 1921) Presents the facts as to the condition of the Napa school plant at the present time, the imme- diate need for additional school accommodations, a plan for meeting these needs, a program for future needs, a study of the cost involved, and the community's ability to meet it. 1108. Morrow, Irving F. The new high school at Salinas. Architect and engineer (San Francisco) 66:47-58, July 1921. A description of the new school building at Salinas, Calif., accompanied by plates and plans. SCHOOL HYGIENE AND SANITATION. 1109. Blanton, Smiley. The medical significance of the disorders of speech. Journal of the American medical association, 77:373-77, July 30, 1921. Among other things emphasizes stuttering and its cure; stuttering among soldier group and school children. • • 1110. Dana, Harold W. Myocardial lesions in school children. Boston medical and surgical journal, 186: 228-31, August 25, 1921. study based on an examination of public school children in Massachusetts. Says that proof of myocardial insufficiency is often to be found in supposed healthy children. 1111. Dickson, Frank D. The effect of posture on the health of the child. Journal of the American medical association, 77: 760-63, September 3, 1921. 1112. Gebhart, John C. Defective nutrition and physical retardation. Peda- gogical seminary, 28:147-55, June 1921. .Describes the work of the New York association for improving the condition of the poor, whose committee on the welfare of school children made an intensiye study of defective nutri- tion in 1907. Work of Child health association and other agencies. 1113. Halsey, Robert H. Heart disease in children of school age. Journal of the American medical association, 77:672-74, August 27, 1921. Presents results noted in classes of cardiac pupils segregated at a public school in New York City. 1114. Harris, Louis I. Minimum health standards in schools. Nation's health, 3:477-79, August 1921. ''Specific public health problems," says the writer, "are bound up with school hygieme because of the large proportion of the ill health of the community which is found among chil- dren of school age. " Presents an outline of miniwinni sanitary standards for the protection of school children and teachers. 1115. Hays, Harold H. Needed measures for the prevention of deafness during early life. Journal of the American medical association, 77:263-67, July 23, 1921. Advocates more careful treatment and testing of children's ears. Bmphasizes the educatian of parents, teachers, and physicians as to the factors which cause deafness. 1116. Horwitz, Alexander E. Educational needs of the crippled child. Nation's health, 3 : 472-74, August 1921. Describes the work of the Massachusetts hospital school, the Minnesota state hospital, Ne- braska orthopedic hospital, and New York state hospital in giving scholastic and shop instruc- tion to crippled children. 1117. Howe, William A. School medical inspection in New York state. [Albany, 1921] cover-title, p. 181-191. 8°. Read before the Medical society of the county of Albany, 1921. Reprinted from AUniny medical annals, June 1921. 1118. Turner, C. E. llealth teaching and the school health program. American journal of public health, 11: 717-20, Aiigust 1921. GXTKEBNT EDUCATIONAL, PUBUCATIONS. 15 SEX HYGIENE. 1119. Kefauver, Christixie B. Sex education of the child: how the nurse may help. American journal of nursing, 21: 779-82, August 1921. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 1120. Holmes, P. K. Sanity as related to athletics. Educational review, 62: 55-63, June 1921. Di?ciiases the danger of overtrabiing, the fostering of various fonnB of professionalisii] , etc. Deprecates the dominance of alumni and student control of athletics. PLAY AND RECREATION. 1121. Batchelor, W. C. The educational significance of recreative activity. Ameri- can physical education review, 26: 222-28, May 1921. Given before the New century club, February 8, 1921. Recreativeactivlty is not only a ''vital factor in any ed ucational system but the very founda- tion and essence of education itself. " SOCIAL ASPECTS OF EDUCATION. 1122. Carothers, W. H. The money value of education. Teaching, 5:16-21, April 1921. Education has practical, financial value. 1123. Jarrett, Mary C. The educational value of psychiatric social work. Mental hygiene, 5:509-18, July 1921. Says that the two great opportunities for preventive social work are in the school and in industry. lUscusses social service through visiting teachers, who are trained in psychiatric work. CHILD WELFARE. 1124. OloppeTy Edward N. Child welfare in Tennessee; an inquiry by the National child labor committee for the Tennessee child welfare commission. [Nash- viDe, Printing department, Tennessee industrial school, 1920] 616 p. 8°. Contents.— Introduction, E. N. Qloppcr.— The child and the state, W. H. Swift.— Health, H. H. Mitchell.— Schools, Gertrude H. Folks.— Recreation, R. G. Fuller.— Rural life. C. E. Gibbons.— Child labor, Mrs. Mary H. Mitchell.— Juvenile courts, Mabel B. Ellis.— Mothers' pensions, Mabel B. EUis.— Institutions, Sara A. Brown.— Home finding, Sara A. Brown. RELIGIOUS AND CHURCH EDUCATION. 1125. Cope, Henry Frederick. The parent and the child; case studies in the problems of parenthood. New York, G. H. Doran company [1921] 184p. 12°. Aims to be a practical handbook for parents in moral and religious training in the family by applying the "case method " to this subject. 1126. Dunney, Joseph A. The parish school; its aims, procedure, and problems. New York, The Macmillan company, 1921. xix, 326p. fold, charts. 12°. A general survey of the Roman Catholic parochial school— its aims, principles, organization, procedure, and problems. 1127. Kandel, I. L. The vitalizing of Jewish education. Menorah journal, 7:84-91, June 1921. ' Advocates for the Jewish sohool a curriculum which makes the living present its starting point and links it with the remote past. 1128. Kelly, Robert I«. Biblical history and literature as a college entrance require- mennt. Religious education, 16:199-207, August 1921. Gives alist of institutions accepting Bible history andliterature as entrance credit. 16 CTJBBENT BDtrCATIONAIi PUBLICATIONS. 1129. Kepley, Charles Everett. The rural Sunday school. Columbia, S. C, University of South Carolina, 1921. 51 p. 8®. (Bulletin of the University of South Carolina, no. 99, June 1921) Oi ves the general principles for the organization and opvatlon of rural Sunday schools. 1130. Kirsch, Felix 2i. The future of the small college. Catholic educational review, 19:431-45, September 1921. Paper read at the 18th annual meeting of the Catholic educational aasociatlon, held at Cincinnati, Ohio, July, 1921. 1131. McClure, Haven. The contents of the New Testament; an introductory course. New York, The Macmillan company, 1921. 219p. 12°. This book is the outcome of a number of years' classroom experience in teaching the New Testament as an elective English course in a public high school of over 500 students. It analyzes the contents of each New Testament writing by applying present-day methods of literary and -historical research in a manner intelligible to the younger mind and to the general reader. 1132. Biohards, Qeorge Warren. The function of the Christian college. Educa- tional review, 62:116-26, September 1921. Holds that a Christian college is true to its name when it deliberately aims to give its students the Christian ideal of life and to inspire in them the resolute purpose to practice it in all individual and social relations. 1133. Byan, James H., comp. Directory of Catholic colleges and schools. Wash- ington, D. C, National Catholic welfare council, Bureau of education, 1921. 980, XXX p. 8**. A Ust of Catholic educational institutions in the United States, with names of officers and statistics. MANUAL AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING. 1134. Aumer, Clarence Bay. Mechanics' institutions. Iowa journal of history and politics, 19:389-413, July 1921. Recalls the efforts made a century ago to graft scientific and cultural studies upon mechanical training, by establishing mechanics' institutions. 1135. California. State board of education. Documents relating to vocational education. Sacramento, California state printing office, 1921. 84p. 8^. (Its Bulletin no. 23-A. Fiscal year 1921-22) Contents.— I. General infcmnation relatbig to the administration of vocaticiuti education in California.— II. General regulations of the State board of education for the establishment and maintenance of federal and state aided vocational education in the public intermediate and secondary schools of California.— III. Requirements for teachers of vocational subjects under the provisions of the federal and state vocational education acts. — IV. Plan for the sup^vision of vocational courses in agriculture.— V. Plan for the training of vocational teachers. 1136. Canada. Department of labour. Proceedings of the first national confer- ence on technical education Canada, Ottawa, October 25-26 1920. Issued by the director of technical education, Department of labour, Canada. Ottawa, T. Mulvey, printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty, 1921. 76p. 8°. (Bulletin no. 1. Vocational education series) 1137. Douglas, Paul H. American apprenticeship and industrial education. New York, Columbia university; London, P. S. King & Son, ltd., 1921. 348p. 8°. (Studies in history, economics and public law. vol. xcv, no. 2. Whole no. 216.) 1138. liacDonald, D. J. Part-time classes in industrial education. Educational review, 62:1-9, June 1921. Discusses the standard method of securing suitable subject matter for the classes. Writer says that certain definite questions must be faced, viz: (1) What is meant by suitable subject matter? (2) What are the objectives aimed at in part-time ciasses? and (8) What are the chief factors that must be reckoned with, in trying to attain the stated obfectives? 1139. Winslow, L. L. A constructive plan for the organization and administration of junior high school courses in industrial arts for boys. Industrial-arts magazine, 10:243-47, July 1921. It is desirable to include in all Junior high school courses, as much experience of prevocational worth as possible. These schools should assist the pupils in selecting an occupation. CUB&ENT EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS. . 17 VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE. 1140. Brewer, John M. The aimfl and methods of vocational guidance. Educa- tional review, 62:10-21, June 1921. Approves the study of the actual opportunities in and problems of the occupational world. Says that the best way to accomplish this is to organize definitely a class for the study of occu- pations. 1141. Practical arte for vocational guidance in the junior high school. Man- ual training magazine, 23:69-72, September 1921. 1142. Jacobs, Charles L. Bibliography on vocational guidance; a selected list of vocational guidance references for teachers. Washington, D. C, Federal board for vocational education, 1921. 35 p. S°. (Bulletin no. 66. Trade and industrial series no. 19. June, 1921) Many of the titles in this list are fully amiotated. 1143. Jones, Arthur J. Vocational guidance and education. Educational review, 62:10^-21, June 1921. Discusses the value of vocational guidance, but criticises the extravagant claims made for it. 1144. Lei^b, Mildred B. Vocational guidance for college women. Educational re\'iew, 62:34r-45, June 1921. Describes the work of the various college alumnae in securing employment for coUoge grad- uates. Emphasizes the importance of the work. HOME ECONOMICS. 1145. Davenport, Eugene. Home economics at Illinois. Journal of home eco- nomics, 13:337-41, August 1921. "Presented at the Recognition service in honor of Professor Isabel Bevier, May 28, 1921." 1146. Denny, Grace. Practical teaching of textiles in high schools. Journal of home economics, 13:342-45, August 1921. ** Methods and teaching agencies": p. 345. 1147. Sneddon, David. Household arts for junior high schools. Journal of home economics, 13:289-96, July 1921. Address delivered before the Household arts section of the Eastern arts association, Balti- more, March, 1921. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION. 1148. National foreign trade convention. Group one. Commercial education for foreign trade. In Official report of the eighth National foreign trade convention, held at Cleveland, Ohio, May 4-7, 1921. New York, 1921. p. 47-78. (O. K. Davis, secretary. National foreign trade council. New York, N. Y.) Contains: 1. J. A. De Haas: Fundamentals in foreign trade education, p. 47-56. 2. W. 8. Tower: Means of getting an International viewpoint in foreign trade education, p. 57-63. 3. Discussion, p. 61-78. 1149. Training for a new profession. Current affairs (Boston, Mass.) 12:3-4, 32, August 1, 1921. An aooount of the first school for commercial organization secretaries, held at Northwestern university, Evanston, III, July, 1921. LEGAL EDUCATION. 1150. Reed, Alfred Zantainger. Training for the public profession of the law. Historical development and principal contemporary problems of legal edu- cation in the United States, with some account of conditions in England and Canada. New York city, 522 Fifth avenue, 1921. xviii, 498 p. 8°. (Carnegie foundation for the advancement of teaching. Bulletin no. 15) This report presents not merely a criticism of the existing law schools, and of present day tendencies in the professional training of lawyers, but it describes the history and progress of American legal education. It undertakes to make clear the relation of the bar and of the bar. examinations tolegal education. The present volome is to be followed by one dealing with the contemporary sit nation in greater detail. 18 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS. MEDICAL EDUCATION. 1151. Foote, John. How to meet examination problems. Trained nurse and hospital review, 67:205-9, September 1921. 1152. Hamilton, Arthur S. Graduate training in nervous and mental diseases. Journal of the American medical association, 77:559-62, August 27, 1921. Advocates a properly standardized course of study for those who desire to fit tbemsolveg for a career in neuropsychiatry. Outlines such a course. 1153. Karsner, Howard T. '^Progressive education " in the teaching of pathology. Science, n. s., 54:81-84, July 29, 1921. Emphasizes the value of the i nformal recitation as permitting a better evaluation of the abiUty of the individual student than is possible with the more formal and more autocratic recitation conducted by the teacher. 1154. Medical education in the United States. Journal of the American medical association, 77:527-56, August 13, 1921. Review of education for 1921 by the Council on medical education and hospitals. Gives statistics of medical colleges in the United States and Canada; distribution of students by states; entrance requirements, etc. 1155. Mailer, George P. Graduate instruction in surgery. Journal of the American medical association, 77:503-6, August 13, 1921. Suggests that the medical schools of the universities affiliate with higfa-dass hospitals. Dis- cusses the work of the Committee on postgraduate instruction in surg^fy. 1156. National leag^ue of nursing education. Committee on education. Preliminary report on university schools of nursing. American journal of nursing, 21:799, August 1921. Gives summary of courses in a few existing university schools. Continued from July number p. 716. CIVIC EDUCATION. 1157. Boas, Ralph Philip, ed. Youth and the new world. Essays from the Atlantic monthly. Boston, The Atlantic monthly press [1921] viii, 320 p. 12®. stimulating essays for young people on the relation of youth's new time to the experience of age; education; the spirit of America; Americanization; women and the state; the problem of international organization; and, Anally, the importance of spiritual values. 1158. ChristophelBmeier, Oarl. Citizenship and the schools. South Dakota educator, 34:16-19, 34-39, June 1921. Article deals not so much with tbe elementary aspect of citizenship, which is a matter of birth or naturalization, as with the question of good citizenship, which is a matter of educatic n. 1159. Hart, Joseph K. Social science in the schools. Survey, 46:591-92, August 16, 1921. Says that while almost all schools are reputed as giving civics courses of some sort, less than 50 per cent are giving courses of a modern, positive, constructive sort. Discusses data collected by the National committee for teaching citizenship. 1160. Jellifie, Ella K. America's making. Education, 42:21-26, September 1921. An outline of work in the public schools in preparation for the festival and exhibit called " America's making," to be presented by societies, schools, churches, libraries, museums, and citi- zens of New York, during October, 1921, under the auspices of the state and city departments of education. 1161. New York (State) Leg^islature. Revolutionary radicalism; its history, purpose, and tactics, with an exposition and discussion of the steps being • taken and required to curb it; being the report of the Joint legislative commit- tee investigating seditious activities, filed April 24, 1920, in the Senate of the state of New York. Albany, J. B. Lyon company, printers, 1920. 4 v. plates. 8°. Vols. I and II deal with subversive movements; Vols. Ill and IV take up constructive measures, and are mainly devoted to Educational training for citizenship, both in New York and in other states of the Union. AMERICANIZATION. 1162. Akron, Ohio. Board of education. Akron public schools, 1920-1921. Department of Americanization. Annual report. [31] p. illus. 8^. Bibliography: p. [28-31]. CUREENT EDUCATIONAL PUBU CATIONS. 19 1163. Clark, E. Everett. The Akron plan. Survey, 46:518-19, July 16, 1921. Describes the Americanization work in Akron, Ohio, which is supported, controlled., and directed by the Board of education of the city. 1164. Hart, Helen. State programB of immigrant education. Survey, 46:516-18, July 16, 1921. Outlines the state programs of Massachusetts and New- York. Gives typical programs. 1165. Joirdan, Biverda Harding. Nationality and school progrees ; a study in Ameri- canization. Bloomington, 111., Public school publishing company [1921] . 105 p. tables. 12^. (School and home education monographs, no. 4. ) Thesis (Ph. D.>— University of Minnesota, 1921. This investigation of school children with reference to nationality and progr^s was made in various public schools of Minneapolis and St. Paul which were selected as representative of sodal groups in these cities. The conclusions are a contribution toward the information now available for the determination of the influence of nationality on school progress. There are not yet available instruments for measuring school progress so well designed and standardized as to detect the exact effects of nationality, apart from other factors involved. 1166. Hosenstein, David. Contributions of education to ethnic fusion in America. School and society, 13:673-82, June 18, 1921. A comment on Julius Drachsler's Democracy and Assimilation. 1167. Weber, Joseph J. A little island of foreigners. Survey, 46:548-50, August 1, 1921. Describes a group of Russian immigrants settled in North Dakota; their schools, etc. Amer- icanization work among them. EDUCATION OF SERVICE MEN. 1168. Knappen, Theodore H. The anny as a school. AmericaR review of reviews. 63:627-35, June 1921. The army as a school for soda], scientiflc and vocational education . Describes its effective vocational training . EDUCATION OP WOMEN. 1169. Austin, Uary. American women and the intellectual life. Bookman, 53: 481-85, August 1921. 1170. Chaubal, M. B. T^e aims of the Women's university. Indian review, 22: 443-44, July 1921. Part of the convocation address of the chancellor of the Indian women's university, Jane 19, 1921. showing what has been acoompllahed by the university during the Ave years of its existence. The institution provides for the higher education of women through the Indian vernaculars. 1171. ICann, Kriatine. Hygiene in the woman's college. Educational review, 62: 46-o7, June 1921. 1172. Shuler, ICarjorie. Teaching women politics., American review of reviews, 64:274-77, September 1921. Tells of numerous schools of cltizenslhip for women established at various colleges and uni- versities and elsewhere, with particular attention to the citizenship school for women to be conducted at Yale university, during the week of October 24, 1921. 1173. Woodward, Elizabeth A. Educational opportunities for women from other lands. With a chapter on legislation affecting women by Esther Everett Lape. [Albany, The University, 1920.] cover-title, 35 p. front, plates. 8°. (University of the state of New York bulletin no. 718, Sept. 15, 1920.) "Bibliography" 33-35. NEGRO EDUCATION. 1174. Horoney, T. B. The Americanization of the N^[ro. Catholic world, 113: 577-84, August 1921. Shows the work that the Catholics have been and are doing for the education of Negroes. 1175. Negro education in North Carolina. School and society, 14:53, July 30, 1921. The State department of education of North Carolina has created a division of Negro education, with an enlarged staff of white and colored assistants. 1176. Banaoxn, Beverdy C. Educational problems. Southern workman, 60: 417-20, September 1921. Excerpts from an address before a union meeting of preachers, farmers, and teachers in ogd- ference week at Hampton Institute, June 1921. 20 CUBBENT EDUCATIONAL, PUBOCATIONS. EDUCATION OF DEAF. 1177. Panconcelli-Calzia, O. What experimental phonetics has accomplished for the instruction of the hard of hearing and the deaf. Volta review, 23: 417-22, September 1921. Descnbes the work m applied experimental phonetics of O^rman investigators. Studies in the phonetic laboratory of the University of Hamburg, etc. 1178. Thompson, Iza. The sensitive flame of the Bunsen burner as an aid to voice production and speech for the congenitally deaf child. Volta review, 23: 397-99, September 1921. EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN. 1179. Barrows, Frajiklin W. The relation of physical examinations to public school special classes. Utica, N. Y., State hospitals press, 1921. 6p. 8®. Reprinted from the State hospital quarterly, February 1921. 1180. Shrubsall, F. C. The ascertainment of mental deficiency. School hygiene (London) 12:115-37, August 1921. Delivered at the Ck>nference of the school medical officers of Scotland in Edinburgh, April 7, 1921. EDUCATION EXTENSION. 1181. Bazeley, E. T. Two experiments in voluntary continuation schools. Journal of experimental pedagogy (London) 6:82-89, June 1921. Describes the cooperation between English business houses and training collie. Second paper. LIBRARIES AND READING. 1182. County libraries of Califomia. Survey, 46:520-21, July 16, 1921. 1183. Harris, Muriel. On reading aloud. North American review, 214:345-61, September 1921. Writer says that nineteenth century scholarship, which has no mean roll of names, read aloud with sest. Reading aloud has fallen away at present, because it is at a disadvantage in competition with the quicker methods of the cinematograph, of nature-study, and of reading alone. 1184. Killer, Zana K. How to oiganize a library. Boston, New York [etc.] Library bureau [1921] 40p. illus. 12°. 1185. Skinner, Margaret M. The use of recent literature in the high school. Publishers' weekly, 100:171-80, July 23, 1921. Paper delivered at the meeting of the National education association at Bes Moines, Iowa, July 16, 1021. 1186. Tryon, B. M. The history library and its use in one hundred public high schools in Illinois. School and home education, 40:161-66, May-June 1921. Some guiding principles for the upbuilding of high school history libraries should be decided upon, such as, i. e., to work on the principle of a well-balanced classified library, and the se]eo« tion of a dozen books in each field of history taugbt. BUREAU OF EDUCATION: RECENT PUBLICATIONS. 1187. Educational survey of the University of Arkansas; summary of conclusions and recommendations. Washington, 1921. 43p. A digest of the report of a survey of the University of Arkansas, made at the request of the legislative committee ip charge of the survey, under the direction of the United States Com- missioner of education. 1188. Educational work of the commercial museum of Philadelphia; by Charles R. Toothaker. Washington, 1921. 28p. 12 plates. (Bulletin, 1920, no. 13) 1189. The Francis Scott Key school. Locust Point, Baltimore, Maryland; by Charles A. Bennett. Washington, 1921. 31p. (Bulletin, 1920, no. 41) 1190. The function concept in secondary school mathematics; a report by the National committee on mathematical requirements. Washington, 1921. lip. (Sec- ondary school circular no. 8. June, 1921) 1191. State laws relating to education enacted in 1918 and 1919; comp. by William R. Hood. Washington, 1921. 231p. (Bulletin, 1920, no. 30) o » A -^ . 'i- -. • ;..• . '< r ^ « ( . '■>JI .' . *. . ■;. <> r , If DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN. 1921. No. 30 SALARIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS AND THEIR ASSISTANTS IN SCHOOL SYSTEMS OF CITIES OF 25,000 INHABITANTS OR MORE By WALTER S. DEFFENBAUGH Speciallit in Cfly School SjtlBao*, Bvmra of Edaatioo ,\ WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFHCE 1922 ADDITIONAL COPIES Of THIS FUBUCA.IION MAT BE FBOCUKED FBOK IBB 8UFBBINTENDENT OF DOCUMSMT8 GOVKSNICENT PBINTINO OVTICB WASHINQTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY SALARIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS AND THEIR ASSISTANTS IN SCHOOL SYSTEMS OF CITIES OF 25,000 INHABITANTS OR MORL INTRODUCTION. By P. P. Claxton Only a few years ago the public schools of most of the largest cities of the United States were constantly ''in poUtics." Superintendents and their assistants all too frequently came and went with changing adnunistrations of city affairs. Individual members of boards, aldermen, or city coimcils, through poUtical pull obtained the appoint- ment of some teachers and the dismissal of others, thus paying political debts and squaring political animosities. Boards of educa- tion, usually very lai^e, made up chiefly of ward politicians, more or less under the control of the "bosses" of the wards from which they were appointed or elected and the representatives of which they understood themselves to be, were uncertain both as to their rights and their powers, servilely yielding or stubbornly antagonizing mayors and boards of aldermen that constantly interfered, some- times domineeringly, with their duties. They in turn interfered, both as boards and as individuals, without r^ard to any sound principles of administration, with the duties of the superintendent of schools and his assistants. Too often there was apparent reason for such interference because of the ineflSciency of low-salaried superintendents and the failure of boards to provide the office of the superintendent with a sufficient number of competent and adequately paid administrative assistants. Boards, too large to function effectively as a whole, were subdivided into many stand- ing and special conmiittees which attempted to do, but ineffectively and wastefully, a wide range of things that should have been left wholly to the superintendent and his assistants. When they did not thus interfere harmfully, school boards required of the superintendents of schools and their small corps of low-paid assistants, where there were any, a wide range of tasks, which were, because of their variety, number, and size, utterly beyond the ability of educators trained for the schoolroom and interested chiefly in courses of study and methods of teaching. The superintendent was too often expected, with the help only of an inadequate corps of inex- perienced and inefficient clerks, to direct the details of expenditures 1 2 SALAEIES OF ADMINISTEATIVE OFFICERS. of hundreds of thousands or even millions of dollars, look after the erection of buildings, purchase all fuel and supplies, keep accounts of all receipts and expenditures, employ janitors and supervise their work, serve as sanitary and health inspector, examine teachers, make reports, statistical and other, and look after a thousand and one details of organization and administration — all of which took so much of his time and strength that the important fimction of direct- ing wisely the educational work of the schools, for which the super- intendent was fitted by disposition and training and for which all else in the school system exists, had to be neglected. In attempting to save thousands of dollars in the salaries of superintendents and their offices, tens and himdreds of thousands were lost through the lack of definite and effective administration, business management, and accounting. Sometimes there was actual antagonism between the board and the superintendent of schools, or at least a total lack of any feeling of authority on the one side or of resppnsibility on the other. Fre- quently the superintendent could not be held responsible for the work of the schools because he was given little or no authority. Still more frequently the board could not be held responsible for the efficiency and success of the schools because, although given apparent author- ity, it had little real authority, ^t being able to control its budget. The board t^omplained of the superintendent, the people complained of both, and the schools failed of their purpose because neither the board nor the superintendent was given the means or the freedom and authority necessary to all good and successful work. Conditions are still far from perfect, but they are much better than they were only a decade or two ago, and are improving. There is a much better understanding of the powers, functions, responsibilities, and methods of procedure, both of boards and of superintendents. They are beginning to understand each other better, to differentiate their functions more clearly, and to respect more the authority and responsibility, each of the other. The people and their representa- tives in legislative bodies and administrative offices have gained a higher conception of the work of the schools and are therefore in- clined to interfere less and to help more by recognizing more fully the authority, the responsibility, and the rights both of school boards and school superintendents, and by voting and appropriating more ade- quate funds for the equipment and support of the schools. For any large city, and in most respects for any small city or town as well, the ideal would probably be somewhat as follows; at least this is what is recommended by the Bureau of Education : I. A small board of five or seven members elected by the people on a nonpartisan ticket from the city at lai^e, or appointed by the mayor and confirmed by the city council. Election by the people is more SALABIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS. 3 democratic and^ in most caseS; better than appointment. If the board is appointed, it should be made as nearly as possible nonpar- tisan by stipulating that not more than three out of five or four out of seven members may be of any one political party. The term of office should be for as many years as there are members of the board; the term of one member expiring each year. On an appomtive board, no person having served two terms in succession should be eligible for reappointment. Members of the board should be removable only by a majority vote at a properly constituted election or upon conviction of crime or gross neglect of duty. There should be no means by which the whole or a part of the board could be removed for sinist^ purpose by the mayor, the city coimcili or any other political or semi- poUtical body. Members of boards should not be paid a salary. Salaried members of boards are in danger of the temptation of wanting to earn their salaries by administrative activities that should be left to the super- intendent and other employees of the board. The board should regard itself as a legislative and policy-making body like unto the boards of directors of a bank or any other business or industry. Its members should remember that they have no more individual author- ity than have the members of any other legislative body and that when the board is not in session they are only ordinary citizens, subject like all other citizens to the rules and policies of the board itself. No member should ever assume to make pronuses for the board or to speak for it except when duly authorized to do so. The number of standing and special committees should be reduced to a TTiiniTniiTTi. A small board with a competent superintendent and administrative staff should have little need of standing com- mittees. The board should elect its own chairman annually and employ a competent secretary from outside its own membership. It should hold open meetings at stated times, not too frequent, should require attendance of its members, and not do business without a quorum actually present. All action should be taken by formal vote and should be duly and accurately recorded. The records of the board should be open for the inspection of the public and all important actions affecting the policy should be published promptly in the public prints. The superintendent of schools should be expected to attend all meetings of the board except when his own election, his salary, or other matters pertaining to his own interests are being voted on. Under the provisions of the charter of the city, the constitution of the State, and the acts of the legislature, the board of education should have entire control of the schools, be held responsible for their success, and should be given such power as necessarily accompanies such responsibiUty. Among the powers of the board should be the 4 SALABIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICEBS. makmg of its budget without review by any other body, determining and carrying out its own program of building, repairing and equip- ping schoolhouses, including their location and the purchasing of sites, and within limits prescribed by law levying taxes and issuing and selling bonds for school purposes. II. As its administrative agent the school board should employ a competent superintendent of schools. To assist in assuring his competency, the salary should be made large enough and the condi- tions of employment such as to attract men of first-rate ability, preparation, and successful experience. No man worthy of the position of superintendent of schools works for pay alone or thinks of salary first, but in America, where we have put everything on a money basis and have eliminated to a lai^e extent at least patron- age, favoritism, and special privilege, we should not expect such service as is required of a superintendent of schools in a city of any size for much less pay than a man of equal ability might earn else- where for services requiring as much effort and responsibiUty and no more risk or uncertainty. No superintendent whose heart is in his work will want the difference between his own salary and the salary of his assistants and the teachers to be so great as to create discontent or result in giving to a competent head incompetent assistants. Yet since the value of all the work of all connected with the school system depends on the wisdom, energy, tact, and executive ability of the superintendent, it is utmost folly for a board to attempt to save money by skimping his salary. This is coming to be understood and is recognized more and more, as is shown by a comparison of salaries of superintendents given in this bidletin with the salaries of superintendents in the same cities 10 or 20 years ago. In every large city the superintendent of schools should have the assistance of a competent business manager and assistant superin- tendent for each important division of the school work, and should have under his direction a competent corps of directors or supervisors of special subjects. There should also be under his direction an efficient bureau of research or investigation and statistics. There should also be sufficient clerical and office help to reheve the super- intendent and all his assistants from time and energy consimiing details and leave freedom for larger and more important tasks. Through these, under the general authority of the board of educa- tion and in harmony with its larger policies, the administration of the schools should be such as to bring out and utilize to the fullest possible extent all the latent energies of all administrative and super- vising officers and all teachers and students. Everywhere there should be such defihiteness of purpose, combined with such freedom of initiative, as will inspire the heartiest and most effective coopera- SALARIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS. 5 tion for the f uQest attainment of the great work of the schools, the right education of all the children, and the inspiration of the entire community ^th higher ideals, inspiring purposes, and clearer con- ceptions of the duties and responsibilities of patriotic American citi- zens. hi Bulletin, 1917, No. 8, was given an analysis of the constitution and powers of the boards of education ia these cities. In Bulletin, 1917, No. 46, the report of the survey of the schools of San Francisco, pages 83-88, is a clear and comprehensive statement of the functions of the board of education and the superintendent of schools on the basis of analogy with the business corporation. Read- ers of this bulletin are referred to these two bulletins. In this bulletin are given the salaries paid administrative and super- visory officers in cities having a population of 25,000 or over, also the salaries paid all employees connected with the school administrative offices in cities having a population of over 100,000. Unfortunately some of the superintendents in this group of cities did not report with the same degree of fullness of detail, as the request for information was not interpreted in the same way by all to whom it was sent. But, upon the whole, the data are sufficiently complete to furnish valuable in- formation to boards of education and others making a study of the salaries of superintendents, supervisors, and other persons connected with the various administrative offices. 6 SALARIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS. •S9 s>§ hi o o e I S^9 ass ec u « £-•353 111 Sid o a ^08 O 00 o 8 CO 8 o it 8 00 00 C96 00 a CO CO 00 8$ M O C4M pfeo* Ot^c<0« » ^ ^ ■« MMCO *k ^ •« S5I2 :S €4 O s 0( MCO MCO 8 9 •^ M a^ MMCQM 00 8S C4C« M MfH^ MM COCO eoMc80i eo'eoeoeoMco'MeoMVMMeo'eo' ill eOCOCOCOMCOMMM-^iMMCO^ -4 to MMCOeOiH COM CO eo CO CO eo eo CO CO CO eo coco Si coco §8 coco COM coco oct>. COM M *• a^ •-•COCO ■O 00' ml j,«j.fe5i4 n- I ■ ^^ I §.■ aS'a s •« s M MM^ CO Si 'M eooto 'CO lO^tO 8 «« •• M ■« a« ak ^eOMMMCO tOMOO 1^ •% a^ ^ I CO COM CO • •vco eo eo eoce 8! eoto C0«OU3 [8! w^aotoco^^u^'o{^•o^ I ^llgllfllsllllllllllllllljllia SALARIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS. S 9« •O »-• 82 e ^ Mt »« •»» M c»«*co (NMCOCt COM • •CI §250"5dQ ••*5r^ U3COCOCOC4CO 'COC* ef^-^ • • «^ flh *« M C4 Ct M C4 C4 C« :g •QC« eo« Moo coc« Mcfc>r ^ * ». vk •> a^ oo » o coV *« a^ ^ a^ O cue* -HCO c* «^ •% «^ •* ^ •* ^—^ •k •« •« c« e* co B' >t— I 3! >^or-e«eqe<« 'lOi-^eoMc*^ aoP-< 001 «^ M a^ »« ♦HfHCOW" 00O«C-H «^ a^ •« ^ •HCOMW i^iocor«« too • ooooooooss^i 'MO • oo 0«^ 5u5 «^ O V o^* • ooo •e-r^e^MOioo*Qt^^( ;lii§i -^'••-^ •e«e»i.^ooeic«^^MM»-'«^»-'Ct'^'-«^«»-»M^e9i-«»-C'Oco>A«0';ot^(0 COGQCQCQi 68724^—22- 1 P^ ,SAI^RIES OF ADMINISTBATIVE OFFICERS. iniiEilllreliileMIMK " Hi H I mi M m ■-. i i§ mmimi ;issr:afiri g I f SALABIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICEES. NnNHjiNiJHNiMMMnMN ]]: 12 SALABIES OP ADMINISTBATIVB OFFICEBS. 1 OF ADMINISTRATIVE C III* 14 SALARIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS. Cities of 25,000 to 49,999 po'puUUUm. Offloors. Superintendent of schools Assistant superintendent Secretary to school board Business manager Superintendent of buildings. . . Chief attendance officer Medical inspector Supervisors: Kindergarten Primary Intermediate and grammar Music Art Manual training Home economics PUy Physical education Educational tests Vocational education Continuation schools Evening schools Special dassw Minimum. $2,500 1,200 100 2,100 800 500 300 000 1,500 1,400 1,215 1,000 1,500 1,300 1,200 1,350 1,500 1,500 1,500 300 1,500 Lower quartile. f4,200 2,400 1,150 2,325 1,800 1,200 850 1,250 1,900 1,700 1,726 1,050 2; 000 1,650 1,600 1,800 1,500 2,200 1,700 400 1,600 Median. 15,000 3,060 2,000 2,500 2L000 1,400 1,200 1,635 2,275 2,200 1,925 1,900 2; 260 1,850 1,700 2; 100 1,800 3,000 %160 1,500 1,800 Upper quartile. $5^500 3,600 2; 800 3,325 2,500 1,700 2,000 1,850 ^500 2,700 2^300 2^150 2; 600 2,200 1,700 2,500 2,400 3,400 2,650 2; 100 2^000 Maadmum. 17,100 5,500 4,500 3,600 4,500 2,500 3,000 2,400 3,000 3,100 3,600 3,550 3,600 4,635 3,000 3,900 2,500 4,400 3,400 3,400 2; 500 CitieB of SO, 000 to 100,000 population. Officers. Superintendent of schools Assistant superintendent Secretary of school board Business manager Superintendent of buildings Chief attendance officer Medical inspector Supervisors: Kindergarten Kindergarten-primary Primary erades Intermediate and grammar Music Art Manual training Home economics Play Physical education Education and psychological tests Vocational education Continuation schools Evening schools Special classes Minimum. 83,450 2,000 350 2,000 1,200 1,000 300 1,250 1,400 1,650 1,800 1,440 1,500 1,000 1,305 900 1,200 1,000 1,320 1,090 240 1,200 Lower quartile. 15,000 2,670 2,100 2,200 2,350 1,400 1,000 2,150 2^250 1,860 2,300 2,100 2,000 2,400 2,000 2,268 1,800 2,100 2,600 2,000 540 1,600 Median. 16,000 3,450 3,000 3,000 2,780 1,700 1,900 2,285 2,500 2,250 2,500 2; 400 2,300 2^700 2; 200 2,550 2; .500 2,350 3,000 2,550 1.440 1,850 Upper quartile. 16,250 4,000 3,600 3,800 3,000 2^000 2; 000 2; 500 2,900 2,700 3,000 2; 600 2,600 3,000 2,600 3,200 2; 800 2; 880 8,600 3,000 2,700 2; 200 Maximum. no^ooo 6,500 5,000 4,200 4,200 ^900 4,303 ^820 3,300 8.300 3,300 3,600 3,600 4,000 3,260 4,250 5,000 3,380 4,800 4,000 3,000 2; 050 Salaries in detail for cities of over 100,000 poptUaiion. AKRON, OHIO. Superintendent of schools 19,000 Superintendent emeritus 8,000 Assistant superintendent 5, 500 Business manager 5, 500 Superintendent of maintenance 3, 600 Director of — Research 3,600 Trade extension 3,200 Americanization 3,000 Chief architect 4,000 •Head of attendance 2,000 AKRON, oHio—oontinuod. Supervisor of— Vocal music $2, 600 Instrumental music 2, 600 Art 2,600 Physical education 2,600 Two superintendent's secretaries, each 1, 920 Payroll clerk 1,800 Clerk of sinking fund 2,040 Stock derk 1,920 Stenographer 1,500 Typist 1,080 f^AT^ATtncR OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS. 15 SaJUxrin in detail Jar cities of over 100^000 population— Contmued, AKBON, OHIO— continued. iderk ~.. $l,fiOO Aasistent sufMrintflDdttDt's aMNtary 1,200 Clerk in— Maintenance department 1,500 Attendance department 1,500 Americanization department 1,820 Bm«au of research 1,060 Architect's offloe 1,200 ALBANY, N. T. Superintendent of schools Superintendent of school buUdlngs Clerk of board Principal at large Req uisition derk Three attendance officers, each Supervisor of— Drawing Music Special classes Kindencarten Handwork Primary grades SngUsh Penmanship Ameriranlfation Director of— Physical education Vocational education AasistaDt supervisor of— Bpedai classes Vocational education Physical education Division of library, textbooks and records: Head of division OneaBilstant Three assistants, each One assistan t Oneassirtant Two clerks (I3.fi0 a day), each about Teacher-clerk, physical ednoatlcn dept ATLANTA, QA. Bnperlntendent Asst. superintlndentand business manager Supervisor (fhrst year) Supervisor (second year) Supervisor (third year) Assistant supervisor (first year) Assistant supervisor (second year) Assistant supervisor (third year) Compulsory attendance officer Superintendent of repairs Stenographer, each Clerks, eaeh 6,000 3,050 2.500 3,200 1.625 1,550 3,200 3,050 3,200 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,.V0 2,000 3,400 3,400 2.000 2,000 1,000 2,200 1,800 1,475 1.400 1.175 1.002 1,100 5,000 3,600 1,736 1,066 2,186 1,536 1,588 1,636 1.080 2,400 1,200 l.JOO BALTDfOBE, MD. General administration: Departmental secretary 2,760 Principal account clerk 2,100 Senior stenographer 1,900 Junior typist 1,100 Supervisor of school buildings 2,300 Janitor 1,000 Stenographer 1,200 68724*»-.22 3 BALTiMOBX, MD.— Continued. Administrative: Superintendent 18,000 First assistant superintendent 6,000 Assistant superintendent 6,000 Assistant superintendent 6,500 Senior clerk 1,500 Junior clerk 1,100 Senior stenographer 1,300 Threejnnior clerks, each 1,200 Telephone clerk and typist ixn SUtistidan 1,800 Supervisor of— Bianual training and teachers 2,000 Music 2,«0 Drawing 2,000 Sewing 2,000 Physical culture 2,000 Kindergarten-primary 2,100 Chief attendance officer 1,500 Fourteen assistant attendance offloers, each. 1,000 Junior typist 1,200 Four supervisors of elementary grades, * each 2,000 One assistant supervisor of music 1,700 Three assistant supervisors of music, each 1,550 Two assistant supervisors of music, each 1,450 Four assistant supervisors of mnslo, each 1,860 Two assistant attendance ofBoen, each. OSO Substitute attendance oflicer 600 BnUfUrOHAJI, ALA. Superintendent of public schools 7, 600 Assistant superintendent 6,000 Secretary, board of education 2,700 Auditor and statistician 1,500 Bookkeeper 1,600 Stenographer to secretary 1,440 Stenographer to supt 1,500 Assistant stenographer and filing derk 1, 200 Supervisor, attendance department 2, 000 Assistant supervisor, attendance depart- ment 1,200 Supervisor of music 2,500 Assistant supervisor of music 1,500 Supervisor of— Drawing 2,200 Home economics 2^500 Manual arts 2,400 Physical training 2,700 Penmanship 2,000 Primary work 2,200 Parental school 2,100 Director, vocational department 3,400 Medical inspector 2,700 Superintendent of buildings ^400 Superintendent, warehouse and repair shop 1,500 BOSTON, MASS. Superintendent 10^000 Thirty assistants to superintendent 28,572 16 SALARIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS. Salaries in detail for cities oj over 100,000 population — ^Continued. BOSTON, MASS.-— continued. Five assistant superintendents S27, 480 ^Secretary 4,740 Assistant secretary 2,700 Seven assistants to secretary 7,908 Business agent 4,740 Gbief accountant, 22 assistants and 2 chauf- feurs to business agent 34,302 Bcfaoottiouse custodian 3,000 derk to schoolhouse custodian 1,116 City treasurer, custodian of the retirement fund 1,500 Telephone operator 720 Substitute telepiione operator 300 Officers, darks, assistants, and stenog- raphns 132,300 GUef attendance officer 2,880 Twenty-four attendance officers 39, 278 IMreetor of--* Department of manual arts 3,640 I>ept.ofhouaeholdsctenoe and arts.... 2,820 Department of music 3,540 Evening schools 8,007 Kindergartens 2,740 Spedal classes 2,260 Salesmanship 2,100 Penmanaliip 2,004 Vocational guidance 2^208 GUef examiner, edncational investigation and measurement 3,610 Director of mediBal-inapeetian 8,000 Supervising nurse 1,620 Director of physical training 8,340 Director of extended use of public schools. . 3, 000 BBIDOEPOBT, CONN. Superintendent 6,000 Assistant superintendent ^000 Second assistant superintendent 4^000 Superintendent's secretary 1,000 Assistant secretary of board 2;600 Agent of board 2; 400 Purchasing agent 1,400 Bookkeeper 1,450 Pay-roll derk 1,300 Stenographer 960 Stenographer 300 Stenographer 900 Switchboard operator 800 High-school prindpal's secretary 1, 500 Stenographer for high school 700 Stenographer for high school 650 Supervisor of— Art 2,300 Art 1,970 Penmanship 1,050 Music 2,500 Music 2,300 Physical education 2,60 Grades 2^900 BUFFALO, N. T. Superintendent 10,000 Three deputy superintendents, each 4, 800 Secretary to superintendent 3,oOO BUFFALO, N. T.^oontimifld. Qeneral siQwrvisor Secretary, board of educatian Superintendent, janitorial service. . . Supply derk Chief derk Three derks, each Clerk (part-time school) Manager, stenographic department. Stenographer to 'superintendent Stenographer to board of education. Two stenographer derks, each Two stenographer derks, each Storekeeper Assistant storekeeper Chauffeur Three hdpers in storeroom, each Switchboard operator Messenger Chief attendance officer Thirteen attendance officers, eadi. . Two attendance officers, eadi Inspector, trades law Psychological examiner CAMBBIDGE, MASS. Superintendent Business agent. Superintendent of buildings and grounds . . Secretary to sdiool committee, per week . . Assistant superintendent, director of con- tinuation and evening sdiools Supervisor of— Primary schools KindeiigBrtensaDdspeoialolasMe Director of art education Assistant director of art education Director of music Two assistants, each Director of physical education Assistant Secretary to superintendent, per wstk Clerk, per week Temporary derk, certificate division, per week Seven attendance officers, each Two derks, each per we<^ One derk, per wedE Porter CmCAOO, ILL. Superintendent of schools First assistant Three assistants, each Secretary to board of examiners Examiner Ten district superintendents, each Supervisor of— Music J Art Blind Household arts Technical work in high schools Conunerdal work in high schools Physical education in elementary schools 18^200 8»000 ^600 1,800 8^000 1,200 1,500 1,900 1,700 1,500 1,500 1,200 1,600 1,200 1,200 800 1,100 520 1,800 1,600 1,000 1»700 1,600 6,000 8,000 9,500 22.00 4»8ao 9^460 %400 8,220 1,600 8,220 1,6M 2^460 1,8M 26.80 26.60 16wOO 1,800 96. 8D 8L00 1,800 12,000 8,100 7,200 7,200 6,000 6,000 8,7S0 8,760 3,500 4,500 4,300 4,300 4,500 SAT.ATtlKS OF ADMIKISTRATIVE OFFICERS. 17 Sdariei in detail for citUa of over 100,000 population— Contixmed, CBicAOo, nx.'CODtlnaed. fieiioolesctanslon 15,000 Special schoolB 5,000 Skauntarymaznialtniiiing 5,000 ChUdstndy 4,900 ▼oentloDslgiildaiice 5,000 Chief compalaoty cflteer 5,300 Prtndpft] ecDtmnatian school 6,U0 BiBfnen manager 10,000 AieUteet 8,000 One hoodrad and seventy-four clerks from fB00tof3,000. GovcmiYAn, one.! 10,000 5,000 Assistant sopertntandent 3,500 Dlreetorof— XlndeiKarteDs 3,000 VocatloDaledaoatloa 3,100 Conttnaatloa schools 3,100 Bouaeholdarts 3,aoo Ibdostiialarts 3,500 Jlrt. 3,600 MoslD 3,000 Ttamanshlp 3,000 Fhysica] education 3,600 Cfyie and vocational league 2,200 ExBoottve secretary 1,500 Superintendent's secretary., 1,500 Stoiographer 1,200 Two stenographers, each.'. 1,000 Stenographer 000 Ofloe attendant and telephone operator ... 000 Assistant director in charge of attendance department 1,500 Court attendance officer 1,500 Attendance officer 1,800 Two attendance officers, each 1,600 Attendance officer 1,500 Attendance officer 1, 200 Attendance officer 1,300 Stenographer 900 Assistant director of vocation bureau 2,20n Two psychological laboratory assistants, each 1,400 Two psjrchological laboratory assistants, each 1,200 Social investigator 1,300 Placement secretary 1,900 Employment certificate assistant 1,500 Placement assistant 1,500 Placement assistant 1,400 Two stenographers, each 1,200 Stenographer 780 Clerk 3,600 Deputy derk 2,200 Stenographer 1,200 Stenographer 1,100 Business manager 5,000 Ckr^ 3,500 CINCINNATI, OHIO— continued. General clerk $1,600 Clerk-stenographer 1,250 General clerk-stenographer 1,360 Stenographer 960 Clerk-typist 080 Stores bookkeeper 1,400 Assistant stores bookkeeper 1,200 Custodian 1,800 Assistant custodian 1,400 Visiting engineer 2,700 Assistant stores keeper 1,300 Assistant stores keeper 1,200 Telephone operator 800 CUW.AMD, OBK). Superintendent of schools 10,000 Three assistant superintendents, each 6,500 Two assistant superintendents, each 5,500 One assistant superintendent 5,000 Director of— French and Spanish 4,000 Sni^lah 4,250 Mathematics Secretary to superintendent 4,000 Supervisor of substitute teachers 2,000 Supervisor of appointments 2,760 7^0 assistant supervisors of appointments, each 1,600 Director of school housing 4,500 Assistant director of school housing 3,500 Assistant director of school housing 2,750 Director of reference and research 4,500 Assistant director ofreference and research. 2,400 Assistant director of reference and research. 2,200 Supervisor of evening schools 3,850 Assistant supervisor of evening schools 2, 750 Supervisor of community centers 3,3X Assistant supervisor of community centers. 2, 750 Supervisor of school gardens 3,300 Supovlsor of medical inspection 3,300 Assistant supervisor of medical inspection . 2, 500 Twenty-three school doctors, each 1, 282 Assistant supervisor of school nurses 2,600 Two school nurses, each 1,440 Three school nurses, each 1,670 Two school nurses, each 1,610 Three school nurses, each 1,320 One school nurse 1,382 Five school nurses, each 1,550 Seven school nurses, each 1,730 One school nurse 1,370 Three school nurses, each 1,490 Three school nurses, each 1,200 One school nurse 1 , 210 Assistant supervisor of dental clinics 2,000 Nine school dentists, each 1,425 Four school dentists, each 2,850 Seven dental nurses, each 700 One dental nurse 960 Assistant supervisor, orthopedics 2,479 Director of publications 4,000 1 Chief medical inspector, in charge of medical, dental, and nursing senioe in the schools, la paid by board of health. 18 SALARIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS. Salaries in detail for cities of aver 100,000 popuhtion — Continued. CLEVELAND, OHIO— Continued. Assistant director of publications Director of attendance, census, and voca- tional guidance Assistant director of attendance, census, and vocational guidance Assistant director of attendance, census, and vocational guidance One attendance ofiBcer Twoattendance officers, each Three attendance officers, each Threeattendance officers, each Twoattendance officers, each Twenty attendance officers, each General supervisor, elementary schools General supervisor, elementary schools General supervisor, elementary schools General supervisor, elementary schools General supervisor, elementary schools Supervisor of music Four assistant supervisors of music, each. . Supervisor of chorus music Supervisor of art Five assistant supervisors of art, eadi One assistant supervisor of art Supervisor of writing Three assistant supervisors of writing, each. Supervisor of kindergartens Supervisor of physical training Three assistantsupervisors of physical train- ing, each Supervisor exceptional classes Assistant supervisor exceptional classes .... Assistantsnpervisorexceptioiialclasses Assistant supervisor psychological clinics . . Assistant supervisor psychological clinics. . Assistant supervisor psychological clinics . . Assistant supervisor psychological clinics . . Assistant supervisor speech defects Supervisor of manualtraining Supervisor of home economics Assistant supervisor of home economics Supervisor of lunch rooms Supervisor of blind classes (| time) Assistantsupervisor of blind classes (f timej) Director of board of examiners Assistant secretary to Supt Clerk to superintendent Stenographer Thirteen stenographers, each Nine stenographers, each Two clerks, each Onederk Ten clerks, each Onederk One Braille stereotyper Two Braille stereotypers, each COLUMBUS, oino. Executive department: Superintendent Assistant superintendent Assistant superintendant Secretary $1,600 4,000 3,000 2,100 3,086 2,500 2,000 1,000 1,700 1,600 3,680 3,560 3,200 3,060 3,000 3,680 2,500 3,000 8,660 2^600 1,360 3,560 2,500 3,000 3,660 2,705 3,000 2,045 1,200 2,675 1,800 1,350 1,320 2,170 3,680 3,560 1,800 3,020 3,680 2,500 3,500 2,400 2,640 1,600 1,426 1,350 1,680 1,470 1,300 960 1,656 1,488 7,500 4,500 4,000 1,300 coLUHBUs, omo— continued. Executive department— CootinuAd. aerk n^aoo Clerk 1,060 Business department: Clerk (ex officio treasurer) 4,000 Assistant clerk 2,500 Assistant clerk 2,000 Assistant derk 1,660 Stenographer 1,060 Storekeeper 1,600 Assistant storekeeper 1,560 Arohitect's office: Architect 2,880 Two draftsmen, each 3,000 Two draftsmen, each 2,400 Onedraftsman 2,700 Building supervisor 3,000 Building supervisor 2,400 Electrical engineer 2,400 Heating enginoer 3^000 Building and repair department: Superintendent of buildings 3,000 Foreman painter , 2,160 Shopman 1,704 Electrician 1,704 Three carpenters, each. 1,704 Public schod library: librarian. 2,280 Two assistant librarians, each 1,600 Two assistant librarians, each 1,200 Three high-schod librarians, each. 1,600 Two high-schod librarians, each 1, fiOO Attendance department: One attendance officer 1,660 One attendance officer 1,800 Two iltteDdance officers, each. 1,380 Board of examiners: Three examiners, each 200 Supervisors: Manualtraining 2,250 Assistant supervisor, home economics. . 1, 875 Three assistant supervisors, of music, each .". : 1,876 Assistant supervisor, physical educa- tion 1,875 Americanization 2,187 Art 2,625 Assistant supervisor, art 2,125 Kindergarten 2,125 Nature study 2,187 Journalism 2,066 Schod physician 3,600 Two nurses, each 1,300 Three nurses, each l,ioo DALLAS, TEX. Superintendent of schools 7,200 Assistant superintendent of schods 6, 000 Private secretary 2,000 Supervise of— High-schod instruction 6^000 Intermediate grades 3,600 Primarywork 3,000 SATJ^RIWS OF ADMIKISTRATTVE OFFICBBS. 19 Sakaies in detail for citiet of over 100,000 popuJo^um— Continued. DALLAS, TBZ.~€0OtiniMd. Sapcrrisor of— Continaed. Hcolc 13,000 Drawing and wiitiiig 8,000 Assistant supervisor of miBlo S,000 Assistant supervisor of drawing and writing 2,000 SoparvisorofpliyBlcal training, primary... 3,000 Stenograplia' i,a00 Statistical clerk. 1,300 sadministratioQ: Seorstaiy of board of edncatiaa 000 flapervisor of buildings 8,000 TeOer Bookkeeper. . Stenographer, aerk 1,800 1,800 1,M0 MO DATTON, OBBO. Grade schools (pirt-time, also princi- pal of one of the elementary schools). 750 Physical training 2,050 Kindergtftens 1,750 Drawing and industrial work 2,060 Assistant 1,550 Expression 3,060 Penmanship 3,060 Vocal musie 3,660 Two assistanto, each 1,400 Oiehestras 3,S50 Manual training 3,660 Home eooncmies. 3,550 Truant offioer 1,030 Truant officer (also has charge of compul- sory tentinuatlon acbool) 3,060 Health Inspector* Business manager > Clerk* 4,000 Assistant dflrit 1,800 Stenographer 1,300 Superintendent of ooostruotlon (also has ofBoeofhisown) 5,000 Clerk 1,430 Superintendent of buildings 2,520 Stock derk and purcbasing agent 2,200 Two clerks (stock room), each | ' Stenographer (stoek room) 1,200 Secretary to superintendent of instruction. 1, 800 Assistant ofBoe of superintendent of In- struction 1,200 DENVER, COLO. Superintendent's ofSce: Superintendent 8,000 Assistant superintendent 5,000 Assistant to superintendent 4,100 Secretary in charge of supply teachers . 2, 100 norvsB, COLO.— continued. Superintendent's offioe— Continued. Chief derk 83,400 (31erk 1,800 Three clerks, each 1,600 Clert 1,600 Clerk 1,040 Clerk 780 Telephone: Operator 1,030 Operator 000 Business offioe: Chief engineer 6,000 Cbief clerk 2,400 Clerk 1,000 Caerk 1,800 Clerk , 1,800 Clerk 1,180 Twoderks, each 1,100 Storehouse: Storekeeper 3,000 Clerk 1,100 Clerk, part-time 800 Clerk 1,300 Expressman. 3,300 Departments: Director, measuroments and standards. 8, 3M Special teadier, speech 1,900 Special teacher, speech 1,740 Special teacher, special soliools 1,810 Director, penmanship 3,610 ^Mdal teacher, penmanship 1,900 Girls' handicraft director 3,640 Spedal teacher, girls' handicraft 1,900 Director of art education 3,600 Spedalteacher, art education 1,440 Spedal teacher, art education 1,000 I^reotorof— City gardens; 3,440 Manual training 3,940 Fhsrslcal education 3,640 Lunchrooms 3,640 Domestic sdenoe 3,740 Cadetcorpe 1,970 Two spedal teadiers, cadet corps, eaoh. 1 , 400 Direotor of music 3,600 Spedal teacher, music 1,840 Two special teachers, music, each 1,440 Spedal teacher, music 1,800 Spedal teadier, music 1,300 Direotor of playgrounds 1,840 Spedal teacher, playgrounds 1, 600 Direotor of attendance 2,400 Four attendance officers, each 1,400 PES If 0INE8, IOWA. Superintendent of schods 7,600 Director of— Elementary education 4,000 Kindergartens 3,413 * This work is now under the charge of the dty department of health. The board pays 8100 per month for the services 6f five district phjrsicians, part-time. s The board has no business manager. The financial matters are taken care of by the derk, who is also treasurer of the board. Clerk of board of education, construotion department, stock dark, and purcharing department are responsible directly to board of educatian. 20 SALABIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS. ScLlaries in detail for cUieg qf over 100,000 jDopuia^um— Continued. DE8 MODIB8, IOWA— GQQttallMd. Director of— Ckmtlnoed. Industrial edooa tion Boainesa educatian Bxtendoa activities and AnuiieanUa- tioQ work Research Exoeptiooal children Supervisor of— Primary grades Home eoooomlcs Art j^3gl8tant Music Two assistants, each. Penmanship Dtreotor,, department of health (half time). Sdiool dentist (half time) OralhygleDlst aerk Supervisor, physical education Supervisory school nurses Secretary to soperintaidflDt detk Four steDOgraphers fhnn 1000 to tl,MO. Informatian derk Direator,.atlendanoe and employmoiL — TwoatteDdanoeolBcerSyeaeii. Chief elerk Assistant clerk*. fl^ffy^a'y and ^?ff1yiw '"fti^fHf Bookkeeper Two clerks ftom Sl,a0O to 11,880. Stenographer Superintendent, buildings and grounds. . . aerk DsiBorr, mcB. Superintendent Deputy superintendent I Twoassistant supefintendents, each Director of— Ins. normal tr. and research Education expenditures Statistics Special education Intermediate school Assistant director of— Industrial art '. Physical education Educationalresearcfa Inspector, teachers Asst. supr., statistics and reference. Asst.supr., educational research Supervisor of— Arithmetic Comp. education Music Elementary music Art Penmanship Oaogiaphy Bns^h Kindergarten primary grades Visual education Special education 88,400 8,400 3,100 2,500 8,000 8,000 3,840 2,413 3,000 3,700 1,540 3,107 1,758 1,758 1,700 1,080 3,527 3,500 3,400 1,880 8,500 8,400 1,400 1,300 4,300 9^000 1,830 8,500 1,500 0,000 7,680 6^000 8^000 8,000 5^100 8^600 4^000 5,000 3,000 4,800 4,500 3,000 3,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 3,500 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 3,000 4,800 Dn^oir, men— oontlnaed. Supervisor of— Continued. Ungraded classes 84,000 Girls' activitiea 4,000 Mech.dEawingandman.tr. 4,000 Domeatloarts 4,000 Domeaticsdenoe 4,000 Industrial training. 4,000 Phy. education high sch. 4,000 Boys' athletics 4,000 Sev6nas8t.supr. phydoaled., each. 2,500 Twoaast. supr. mnsle, each 2,500 Fteirasst.supr. art, each 2,500 Two asst. supr. penmanship, each 2,500 Four asst. supr. English, each 2;500 lliree assit. supr. kindergarten, each 2; 500 Four asst. supr. special ed., each 2^500 Two dist. attendance officers, each 8;00O Two dlst. attendance officers, each 2;500 Attendance officer 1,700 Business manager 5^100 Tw4>clerkB (chief clerks), each 3,000 One derk (chief derk) 2; 400 One derk (chief derk) 1,920 Two derks (chief derks),eadi 1,880 One derk. 2,000 Oneclerk 2; 100 Two derks, each I,7t0 Onederk l,«ao Seven clerks, each 1,560 Seven derks,each 1,500 Five derks, each 1,440 Onederk. 1,380 Three derks, each 1,390 Two derks, each. 1,300 Two derks, each. 1,080 Onederk 1,020 Onestenographer 2,040 Two stenographers, each 1,800 Flvestenographers,each 1,680 Two stenographers, each 1,560 Two stenographers, each 1,440 Two stenographers, each 1,320 FALL BIVXB, IEA8B. Superintendent 5^000 Assistant superintendent • 3,400 Primary supervisor •• 2,160 Primary supervisor 2,280 Supervisor of— Housdiold arts — 2,120 Drawing 2,880 Assistant 2.000 Reading 2,400 Physical training 2,400 Assistant 1,820 Music 2,880 Secretary 2,200 Seven attendance officers, each 1,800 Supplyderk 1,000 Stenographer 1,600 Stenographer 1,100 Stenographer 000 aerk 1,200 Clerk 1,100 SALABIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS. 21 8dlarxe$ in detail for cities of over 100^000 population — Continued. HOX7STON, TEX. SnperinteDdent Saptftntendent of hygiene Biasisess Tepresentattve, school board. Aiperintendent of — Music. Interxniediate grades Penmanship Art- ifftTiTwi training Domestic science Seaetarytosaperlntendent SecBetary to bostness representative SeoBBtary to mannal training director JLsaistant In superintendent's office Manager of tree textbooks IPonr nuxses, eadi- CTien other norses employed, but salary paid by the city or by prtvate organixa- tkns.) INDfAKAPOUB, HTD. 16,000 4,aoo 8,600 2,400 2,700 2,700 2,500 2,600 2,700 2,100 1,820 1,820 1,680 870 2,180 1,200 flmwalntendent of schools , Aaslatant to superintendent Dfeeetor, dept. of ref. and research Director, vDoatiooal education High school pfindpaL High school principal High school principal Prindpal, normal training school Ftro district superintendents, each , One district superintendent , One district superintendent Director of — Mnntiftl tTaf-nfg^g , Music. Phjrsical edoca. and school hygiene . . . . Art instruction , School lunches , Handwriting Supervisor of sewing Supervisor of cooking Director of attendance department , Four attendance officers, each One attendance oiBoer Two attendance officers, each , One attendance officer One attendance officer Director, business department , Assistant, business director Superintendent of supply Superintendent, buildings and grounds . . . , Attorney , Deputy auditor County treasuier— by city Secretary to supt Two stenographers, each One stenographer One clerk to superintendent Oneclerk One clerk 8,000 4,500 8,600 6,000 4,300 4,500 4,800 8,200 3,600 4,000 8,000 8,500 8,606 3,800 8,500 3,000 3,000 2,300 2,200 3,000 1,500 1,400 1,000 1,760 1,870 6,000 5,000 2,400 3,500 2,500 2,100 1,500 1,800 1,300 1,100 1,800 1,400 1,300 JBRSSY OTT, N. J. Superintendent of schools Assistant superintendents of schools Secretary Clerk Clerk Clerk Supervisor of methods in primary dept Supervisor of methods in grammar d^t. . . Assist, supt., grammar and primary dept. . Director of vocal music Assistant directors of vocal mualo Supervisor of— Claaees for pupils mentally defsctive . . . Drawing Physical training Inttructlon of pupilsdefsctiveinspeeQh Director, manual tr. and domestioao Chief attendance officer Assistant attendance officer Sixteen assistant attendance officers, each . Three assistant attendance officers, each. . . Chief clerk attendance department Two clerks, eacih Director, medical inspection Fourteen assistant medicaHnspeotogw,eanh . Fourteen nur8es,mediCBl d^MUtOMnt,eaflh . Woman medical inapeeter Medical deportment etak Medical department derk Director of dental hygiene Five dentists, each Six dental nurses, each Dental department clerk Secretary of board of educatian Clerk, office of secretary Clerk, oiDce of secretary Fouir clerks, office of secretary, each Inspector of repairs Cle^tolnm»eotarofrapaiiB Inspector of buildings Three inspectors of buildings, each KANSAS OTT, KAMB. Superintendent of schools Director, conjtinuation schools Four district supervisors, each One special supervisor Four special supervisors, each Two stenographers, each One stenographer One attendance officer Three attendance officers, each Clerk, board of education Bookkeeper Switchboard operator Stenographer Superintendent, buildings and grounds. Purchasing agent Chief engineer Bookkeeper Supply clerk 110,500 5,400 3,400 2,200 1,986 1,888 8,000 3,500 8,100 3,800 3,100 2,300 4,100 8,800 2,600 4,100 2,800 2,500 1,800 1,600 1,800 1,500 2,500 800 1,820 1,200 8,000 l,fl0O 2,240 1,200 1,820 1,500 4,260 2,000 1,800 1,600 2,700 1,500 2,500 2,200 6,000 4,000 2,760 2,388 2,206 1,800 1,140 1,560 1,125 3,000 1,800 1,320 1,020 3,000 2,400 2,100 1,680 1,560 22 SALARIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICBBS. Salanes in detail for cities of over 100,000 popiUatian—Contiaued. KANSAS CITY, KAMS.— continued. stenographer. Architect KANSAS CTTT, MO. Superintendent Assistant superintendent Assistant superintendent District superintendent District sui)erintendent Director of— Vocational education Research Primary-kindergarten Assistant director of research Psychologist Secretary to superintendent Clerk, compulsory education Pay-roll clerk One stenographer and clerk One stenographer and clerk Three stenographers and clerks, each . L06 ANQELES, CALIF. Superintendent Deputy superintendent First assistant superintendent . . . Second assistant superintendent. Third assistant superintendent . . Fourth assistant superintendent. Assistant to superintendent Assignment secretary Two clerks, each Onederk Two clerks, each Three stenographers, each Junior clerk Chauileur Chief telephone operator Three assistant telephone operators, each. Evening telephone operator Biuhuts MdnaifeT*9 Department. Business manager's office: Business manager. Clerk Clerk Stenographer Clerk Chauffeur , Supply department: Supply clerk , Assistant to supply clerk Requisition clerk Head stock and record clerk Stenographer and clerk Clerk Stenographer and clerk , St^iographer and clerk , Filing derk Two stock record clerks, each Receiving derk Shipping derk Six stock derks, each Janitor $1,900 1,200 7,500 4,740 4,620 3,780 3,720 4,740 4,080 3,800 2,640 3,000 2,100 2,100 1,800 1,440 1,320 1,200 8,000 4,800 4,600 4,600 4,200 4,200 2,400 2,238 1,500 1,440 1,320 1,320 1,025 1,500 1,200 1,140 300 5,000 2,220 2,100 1,320 1,320 1,500 2,220 1,680 1,500 1,500 1,440 1,200 1,200 1,080 1,060 1,200 1,560 1,560 1,200 1,820 LOS AiTOEUES, CALDT.— Continued. Purohasing department: Chief derk SlyflOO Stenographer and derk 1,380 Stenographer and derk 1,32(^ Clerk 1,200 Stenographer and derk 1,200 Tdephone operator 1,260 Military equipment division: Stock derk 1,280 Hdper 1,080 Clerk 2,100 Shop department: Clerk 2^880 Four district foremen, each 2^100 Yard foreman S^ 160 Chief dectrjdan 2,160 Stenographer i, 320 Night watchman 1,320 Five truck drivers, each i, 440 Clock and bell foreman 1,000 Secretary's office: Secretary 3^900 Assistant secretary 2^160 Chief derk 3^160 Bookkeeper 1,680 Two minute derks, each 1,500 Correspondence derk 1,500 Five stenographers and derks, each. . . 1, 320 Clerk 1,140 Auditor's office: Auditor 3,000 Deputy auditor 2^ 220 Assistant to deputy auditor 1,680 Five senior bookkeepers, each 1,680 Two junior bookkeepers, eadi 1,380 Four assistant bookkeepers, each 1,200 Senior stenographer 1,320 Two junior stenographers, each 1,200 Demand derk 1,320 Counter derk 1,260 Timekeeper 1,280 * Bookkeeping machine operator 1,025 Messenger and typist 900 Compulsory education and child-weUbre department: Director 3^600 Assistant director 2^400 Division supervisor 2,040 Chief attendance officer 2^000 Twdve attendance officers, eiudi 920 Clerk 1,380 Clerk 1,140 Twoderks,each 1,020 Department of psychology and educational research: Director 3,600 Assistant director 2,964 Secretary 1,320 Clerk 1,200 Health and devdopment department: Director 3,000 Nine physidans, each 2;640 Four dentists, each 2^640 SAT.ARTRS OF ADMINISTBATIVB OFFICBBS. 23 Salaries in detail for cities of over lOOyOOO population — Continued. L08 ANGELB8, CAur.^-coiitlnaed. Health and deyelopment dcpaitment-Hson. Eleven senior nunes, each Three junior nuraesyeech Clerk Matron Dental assistant Dental assistant Department of part-time instruction: Director Two coordinators, each Elementary school library: Supervising librarian Two assistant librarians, each Asslstantlibrarian Clerk Clerk Supervisor ol— Home economJos Drawing Physical training Vocationa] training Immigration Kindergarten Manual arts (sloyd) Music Orchestra Nature study Penmanship Modem languages Agriculture... 4 Cardboard construction Primary manual arts Forty-three assistant supervisors, each. Five derks, each LOXnsVILLE, KT. Superintendent Secretary to superintendv nt. Stenographer Stenographer Librarian T elephone operator LOWZLL, MASS. Superintendent of schools Clerk Clerk Attendance officer Attendance officer Attendance officer Attendance officer Clerk, attendance office Business agent Clerk, business agent's office. Stock clerk MEMPHIS, TENN. Superintendent Supervisors, each Attendance officers, each Secretary to school board Secretary to superintendent of schools.. Clerks (average salary) 11,440 1«320 1,200 1,200 960 1,020 3,600 3^300 3^400 1,560 1,620 960 720 8,840 8,840 3,840 8,840 3,840 3,840 3,840 3,840 3,840 3,840 3,840 3,840 3,840 3,600 3^600 2,964 1,200 5,000 a; 400 1,008 996 1,140 1,020 5^000 1,400 1,000 3; 000 2; 400 2,000 1,800 1,200 3,100 1,200 1,600 5,000 1,980 1,320 3,000 1,620 1,200 MXLWAUKSB, WI8. Superintendent of schools. 16^000 Asst. supt. of schools 5,000 Asst. supt. of schools (primary dept.) 4, 620 Assistant to superintendent 3»840 Supervisor of — Industrial educ^itlon 5^500 Street trades 2;7B0 Attendance 3^840 Director of— Drawing 8,840 Elementary manual training 8,840 Household arts 3,840 Music 8,840 Special classes 3,480 Social centers 2,760 Supervisor of physical training 3,840 Secretary-business manager 7,200 Auditor 3,840 Supply clerk 3,840 Asst.tosupt. (extension dept.) 4,200 Athletic director 2,780 MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Superintendent of schools 8,000 Assistant superintendent (instructional). . . 4, 500 Assistant superintendent (instructional). . . 4, 000 Assistant superintendent (industrial) 4, 500 Assistant superintendent (business) 6^ 000 Assistant sui>erintendent (office) 3, 600 Supervisor of— Evening and summer schools 2,500 Domestic science and lunch room 2,500 Drawing 2,750 Music 8,200 Manual training ^300 Penmanship 2,203 Subncxmals-mental examinations 2^300 Blind 1,850 Physical education 3, 300 Director, attendance and guidance 3,000 Director, Americanization 2,700 Special teacher of— Drawing 2,333 Home economics 2, 283 Physical education 2, 500 Physical education 2,088 General department: Secretcffy to superintendent 2,400 Asst. secretary, board of education 2, (XX) Librarian 1, hOO Mail and supply clerk 960 Telephone operator 1, 200 Telephone operator (assistant ) 840 Civil service record clerk 1, 560 Information clerk 1, G20 Page 810 Page 720 Educational department (instructional division): Stenographer to sui>erintendent 1, 680 Stenographer to supervisors 1, 080 Stenographer-clerk 900 Chief clerk 1,920 24 SALABIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS. Salaries in detqjilfar cities of over 100,000 population. lOMKiAPOLis, Hum.— continued. Educational department (Instructional division)— Continued . Records of substitute teachers $1,440 Special activities clerk 1, 200 Clerk, teachers' applications 1, 200 Clerk, hygiene and physical education . . 1, 380 Clerk, files 960 Attendance and guidance division: Supervising attendance officer 1,700 Two attendance officers, eadi 1,400 Two attendance officers, each 1,350 Vocational guidance 2,058 Vocational guidance ^040 Vocational guidance 1,560 Vocationar guidance 1, 320 Supervising census clerk 1,440 Census clerk 1, 200 Censusderk 1,200 Censusclerk 1, 140 Two census clerks, each 1,080 Abeenteedesk 1,200 Absenteedesk 1,140 Statistician I,fl00 Stenographer 1, 060 Stenographer (guidance) 1,320 Stenographer (physical education and hygiene) 1,020 Finance department: Auditor 3,300 Two accountants, each 1,080 Pay rolls clerk 1,920 Pay rolls clerk (assistant) 1,020 Stenographer 1,380 Business department: Assistant business superintendent 2, 460 Secretary to business superintendent ... 1, 500 Statistical eng., real est., ins 2, 100 Purchase requisition clerk 2,100 Bookkeeper 1,260 Bookkeeper (lunch rooms) 1,500 Stenographer (purchase requisitions) . . 1, 320 Stenographer (work orders) 1, 200 Stenographer 1,260 Textbook clerk 1,200 Textbook clerk 1,140 Invoice clerk 1,860 Invoice clerk 1,440 Invoice clerk 1, 140 Cost records clerk 1,260 Stock record clerk 1,140 Stock adjustment clerk 1,380 File clerk 1,080 One clerk 1,140 Three clerks, each 1,020 One clerk (lunch rooms) 960 Bureau of buildings di\'ision: Building inspector 2,220 Architectural engineer 3,600 Architectural designer 2, 700 Senior architectural draftsman 2, 700 Three architectural draftsmen, each ... 2, OIO Two architectural draftsmen, each 1, 980 One architectural draftsman 1,920 One architectural draftsman 1,680 One architectural draftsman 1,620 MINNEAPOLIS, MINN— conUnued. Bureau of buildings division— Continued. One architectural draftsman Mechanical engineer Two mechanical draftsmen, each , Structural draftsman Structural draftsman Structural draftsman Stenographer Buildings and repair division: Operating engineer , Supervisor of buildings Foreman of grounds Service investigator Service inspector , Accountant , Pay rolls derk Stenographer , Stenographer Telephone operator Clerk File clerk Supply division: Stores keeper Assistant stores keeper Stenographer Typist Twe clerks, each Stock derk Utility man NASBMLLE, TEIfN. Superintendent of schools ! . . . Supervisor of vocal music Supervisor of writing and drawing Two academic supervisors, each Assistant supervisor, writing and drawing. 8upe^^isor, grade work (colored) Business manager Clerk and stenographer Clerk and stenographer Clerk and tdephone operator Custodian of supplies Janitor Truck driver Chief medical inspector Two assistant medical inspectors, each Assistant medical inspector (colored) Attendance officer NEWARK, N. J. Superintendent Three assistant superintendents, each. One assistant superintendent One assistant supermtendent Clerk to superintenden t Director of manual arts Supervisor of— Manual training (grammar) Manual training (primary) Drawing Drawing (alternating schools) Domestic art Domestic sdenoe Music (alternating schools) 11,380 3,600 1,920 2,220 1,980 1,860 1,380 2,700 3,600 2,220 1,900 1,920 1,680 1,260 1,320 960 900 1,060 1,090 2,400 1,440 1,140 940 1,020 1,200 1,200 4,800 1,700 1,700 1,500 1,100 1,200 3,000 1,440 960 900 1,020 540 720 1,250 1,100 450 1,440 10,000 4,900 4,700 4,500 4,200 3,900 2,700 2,600 2,900 2,500 2,900 2,900 2,700 SAI.ABIES OF ADMnnSTRATTVE OFFICEBS. 25 Salaries in detail for citiea of over 100^000 population. HXWABK, N. J.— contlnoed. Sapenrisor of— Continued. Physical education 13,900 Athletics (high and elementary schools) 3, 000 Penmanship 2,900 Binet schools and classes 2,900 General supemsor 3,200 Dlreetorofmoslc 3,200 Assistant supervisor of— Drawing 2,400 Drawing 2,000 Domestteart 2,600 Damestioart 2,400 Music 2,e0O Music 2,000 Music 1,800 Physical training, 2 each 2,800 Physical training^ 2 each 2,000 One clerk 1,920 One clerk 1.740 Two clerks, each 1,440 Three clerks, each 1,140 Two clerks, each 1,020 Onederk 960 Onederk 900 Two derks, each 840 Onederk 660 Onederk 480 Supervisor of attendance 4,020 Assistant supervisor of attendance 3,000 Attendance officers: One officer 2,000 Four officers, each 1,700 One officer 1,640 Four officers, each 1.460 Seven officers, each 1.400 One officer 1,340 Three officers, each 1,280 Two officers, each 1, 200 One officer 1,080 Onederk 1,020 Onederk 900 Two derks, each 840 Supervisor of medical inspection 3,000 Assistant supervisor of medical Inspection . 1, 700 Psychologist 3,fi00 Assistant psychologist 1,680 Assistant psjrchologist 1,000 Assistant ophthalmologist 1, 140 Two dentists, each 1,020 Seven medical inspectors, each IHi Sanitary Inspector 1,440 Fifteen nurses, each 1,720 One nurse 1,660 One nurse 1,800 Four nurses, each 1,480 Three nurses, each 1,420 Three nurses, each 1,360 Two clerks, eadu 1,020 Onederk 840 Business manager's department: Badness manager 9,000 Assistant business manager 3,600 Secretary to business manager 8,000 Building inspector 8, 000 KEWA&K, N. J.— continued. Business manager's department— Contd. Clerk Clerk Clerk Stenographer Two drivers, each Supply department: Superintendent of supplies Assistant superintendent of supplies. Supervisor of equipment Onederk Two clerks, each Onederk Onederk .• Onederk Two derks, each Three clerks, each Onederk Two derks, each Onederk Onederk Secretary's office: Secretary, board of education Assistant secretary Counsel 4... Onederk One clerk Onederk Onederk Two clerks, each Two clerks, each Onederk Onederk Telephone operator « NEW BEDFORD, liASS. Superintendent of schools Secretary to superintendent Two derks to superintendent, each One clerk to superintendent One derk to superintendent Assistant superintendent of schools Grade supervisor Supervisor of— Instrumental music Vocal music Two assistants, each Drawing Two assistants, eadi Manual training Three assistants, each Cooking Two assistants, each Sewing Five assistants, each Physical training Assistant Sdiool nurses Three assistants, eadi Americanization (part-time) Department mechanic Director of Americanization (part time). Director of continuation schools Three clerks, each $1,500 900 420 1,196 1,240 4,800 3,000 2,600 2,000 1,920 1,500 1,440 1,400 1,140 1,020 1,000 900 840 420 6,000 3,600 4,000 2,100 1,920 1,320 1,020 960 780 510 420 1,320 5,600 1,716 1,300 036 780 3,600 2,850 3,200 2,975 1,800 2,975 1,800 2,850 1,700 1,850 l,T0O 1,850 1,700 2,500 1,700 1,664 1,560 2,200 2,080 400 3,600 780 26 SALAEIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICEBS. Salaries in detail for cities of over 100,000 population — Continued. NSW BEDioBO, iiASs>-oontinued Specialist for eyesight classes (part time). . . $1, 000 Director of community centers 4, 000 Two supervisors, each : 2,200 One assistant supervisor l|80O One assistant supervisor 1,000 Qerk 780 NEW HAVEN, CONN. Superintendent Three assistant superintendents, each Supervisor of— Music Assistant Assistant Drawing Assistant Penmanship » Kindergarten Sewing Two assistants, each Two assistants, each One assistant One assistant Physical training Elementary science (part time) Subnormal department Cooking Cooking, two at Cooking, three at Cooking, two at Shopwork, four at Shopwork, one at Shopwork, one at Shop^ (vk, two at Two truant ofRcers (paid by police dept.). Health inspectors, nurses, dentists, etc. (paid by health dept.). Supply clerk Stenographer Clerk : Superintendent of buildings Stenographer and clerk Secretary Assistant secretary Stenographer and clerk Bookkeeper Pay-roll clerk Bill clerk Telephone operator Ofllce boy . . .< Superintendent's clerks: Secretary Stenographer and clerk Clerk NEW ORLEANS, LA. 5,000 3,960 2,050 1,650 1,625 2,750 1,650 2,650 2,100 1,850 1,750 1,500 1,250 1,150 2,660 500 2,100 1,500 1,600 1,260 1,050 1,900 1,700 1,650 1,600 2,750 1,000 900 3,250 900 3,550 2,000 1,500 1,500 1,400 1,400 1,000 600 2,100 1,200 900 Superintendent 8,000 First a"^istant 4, 600 Second assistant 4,000 Medical inspector 2, 400 Assistant medical inspector - 1,920 Niu"se 1,500 Nurse 1,920 4 Officers and employees directly responsible to NEW ORLEANS, LA.— cootinacd. Attendance officer Assi.stant attendance officer Assistant attendance officer Physical training supervisor Assistant Assistant Clerks and stenographers, $1,060 to $1,680. Secretary <. Inspector ^ Bookkeeper * Assistant inspector < Clerks and stenographers,* SOOO to $1,960. $2,700 1,680 1,500 3,240 2,640 2,160 5,400 3,900 3,600 2,520 NEW YORK, N. T. Supervising force: Superintendent Eight associate superintendents, each. . District superintendent Twenty-six district superintendents, each Seven examiners, each Director of— Reference, research, and statistics. Attendance Assistant Lectures. - Assistant Art Drawing Speech improvement Music Assistant Kindergartens Two assistants, each Sewing, two each Cooking : Assistant Physical training One assistant Three assistants, each Recreational activities Vocational activities Evening and continuation schools. Modem languages in high schools. . High-school organization Assistant director of manual training. . Five insx)ectors of public-school ath- letics, each Superintendent of libraries Library assistant Two physicians to examine teaching applicants, each Two assistant directors of educational hygiene, each Inspector of playgrounds and recreation centers Inspector of ungraded classes Two assistants, each Two medicsd inspectors of ungraded classes, each Inspector of classes for the blind Two supervisors of continuation classes, each board of education. 12,000 8,250 7,600 6,600 7,700 7,000 7,700 5,500 6,600 4,500 5,500 5,500 6,000 5,600 4,276 5,000 3,780 6,000 6,000 3,780 6,500 5,500 4,600 7,000 7,500 7,000 5,500 5,500 4,500 3,300 5,000 2,100 2,600 4,500 2,760 5,000 3,780 3,600 3,780 8,360 SAT.ARIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS. 27 Salaries in detail for cities of over 100,000 population-— ContiDued. NEW TOBX, N. T.— continued. Office of superintendent of schools: Chief clerk .". One clwk Two clerks, each One clerk Seven clerks, each Ten clerks, each Qerk Clerk. Clerk Three clerks, each Five clerks, each Clerk Three clerks, each Clerk Three clerks, each Four stenographers, each Two stenographers, each Three stenographers, each Three stenographers, each Three stenographers, each Three stenographers, each Eighteen stenographers, each Twelve stenographers, each One stenographer Two typewriter copyists, each One typewriter copyist ^ Mechanical draftsman Printer for the blhid Board of examiners: Clerk Clerk Clerk Two clerks, each Two clerks, each Six clerks, each Clerk Two stenographers, each Stenographer Stenographer Stenographer Stenographer Two stenographers, each Bureau of reference, research, and statistics: Clerk Two clerks, each Two clerks, each Clerk aerk Clerk Three clerks, each Four clerks, each Clerk Three clerks, each Clerk Stenographer Stenographer Stenographer Stenographer Stenographer Typewriter copyist Typewriter copyist Statistician Statistician. $4,500 5,500 4,800 8,312 2,820 2,540 2,262 2,106 1,950 1,482 1,326 1,170 1,014 858 702 2,820 2,640 2,262 2,106 1,950 1,794 1,482 1,326 1,170 1,326 1,014 2,106 2,106 3,600 2,640 2,262 2,106 1,050 1,326 702 2,820 2,640 2,262 1,950 1,794 1,326 3,528 2,640 2,106 1,950 1,794 1,638 1,482 1,326 1,014 858 702 1,950 1,794 1,482 1,326 1,170 1,170 1,014 3,312 2,820 NEW YORK, N. T.— Continued. Bureau of reference, research, and statis- tics—Continued. Statistician $2,262 Six tabulating-machine operators, each. 1, 482 Tabulating-machlne operator 1, 170 Bureau of attendance: Chief attendance officer 4,762 Two division supervising attendance officers, each 3,672 Twenty-five district attendance officers, each 2,808 One district attendance officer 2, 680 Seventy-nine attendance officers, each. 1, 690 Fifty-one attendance officers, each 1, 820 Twelve attendance officers, each 1, 950 Eight attendance officers, each 2, 080 Four attendance ofl[lcers, each 2, 210 Ninety-nine attendance officers, each . . 2, 340 One clerk 2, 640 Four clerks, each 2, 106 Two clerks, each 1,950 Five clerks, each 1, 794 Eight clerks, each 1,482 Twenty-nine clerks, each 1, 326 Three clerks, each 1,170 Ten clerks, each 1,014 One clerk 858 Thirty-nine clerks, each 702 Stenographer 2,820 Stenographer 1,794 Stenographer 1,482 Stenographer 1,326 Telephone switchboard operator 1, 482 Offices of district superintendents: Three clerks, each 2,106 Six stenographers, each 1,950 Twelve stenographers, each 1, 794 One stenographer 1, 482 One stenographer 1, 170 Teachers' council: Clerk 2,106 Bureau of buildings: Superintendent of buildings 11, 000 Five deputy superintendents of build- ings, each 6,600 One deputy superintendent of build- ing 5,500 Sanitary assistant 6, 500 Assistant chief, sanitary division 4, 000 Chief of electrical division 6,500 Assistant chief, electrical divifdon 4, 200 Chief of furniture division 4, 500 Assistant chief, furniture division • 4, 000 Engineer 3,528 Assistant engineer 4,000 Assistant engineer 4, 320 One clerk 5, 500 One dork 3,528 One clerk 2,820 Two clerks, each 2,640 Two clerks, each 2,262 One clerk 2, 106 OnoclPfk 1,328 One clerk 1,170 One clerk : 1, 014 Six clerks, each 702 28 SALARIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS. Salaries in detail for cities of over 100,000 population — Continued. NEW TOBK, N. T.—cootinued. Boreaa of buildings— ContiDiidd. One stenographer 12,820 Two steographers, each 2, 1,700 Stenographer » 1,550 Secretary, board of education 3,500 Assistant secretary 3,000 Accountant »2,100 Stenographer « 1,450 Clerk • 1,300 Clerk §1,150 PHnJLDELPHIA, PA. Superintendent of schools 12,000 Four assodate superintendents, each 5, 060 Eight district superintendents, each 4, 070 Director of— Music 5,060 Art education 4,510 Kindergartens 3, 410 Practicalarts and vocational education. 4, 510 Examinations 4,510 Compulsory education 4, 510 Medical ln^)ection 4, 510 Supervisor of si>ecial education for handi- capped children 3, 410 Min. Max. Eighteen assts. to dir. of music, each. 91,240 •2,040 Ten assts. to dir. of art education, each 1,240 •2,040 One asst. to dir. of kindergartens ... 1, 240 • 2, 040 Twenty-five assts. to dir. of physical ed.,each. 1,240 •2,040 • Ten years. 8 AT. A BIBS OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICEBS. 81 Salaries in detail /or cUies of over 100,000 population — Contmued. FHILADKLFBIA, FA.— CectiQn. 1,150 Oneassistant 800 Three assistants, each (3 mos.) 240 Dentist 800 Four nurses, each 970 Music 2,000 Supervisor of— Drawing 1,850 Writing r 1,260 Home economics 1,500 Child welfare 1,850 Special teacher in music 1,050 Special teacher in music 1,250 Special teacher in physical training 1,300 Spedal teacher in drawing 1, 900 Spedal teacher 1, 500 Special teacher 1,450 Special teacher 1,300 Spedal teacher in sewing 1,300 Spedalteacher in sewing 1,050 Spedal teacher in cooking 1,250 Two special teachers in cooking, each 1,200 Two attendance officers, each 1, 475 Superintendent of buildings 2,000 Superintendent of supplies 1, 325 Stenographer 860 34 SALARIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICBBS. Salaries iu detail for cities of over 100,000 population — Continued. BICEICOND, YA. Suporintendent of schools Assistant superintendent Director of— Night schools Manual arts Music Physical education Penmanship Medical inspection Supervisor of — Primary schools Kindergarten (first-grade supervisor) Drawing Household arts Truant officer Clerk and supervisor of buildings Assistant derk Supply derk Messenger Two stenographers, each One stenographer One stenographer One stenographer BOCHESTKB, N. T. Superintendent of schools Two assistant superintendents of schools . . Director of— Lunchrooms Conmiercial work Junior high schools Manual training Art instruction Child study department Music Penmanship Physical education Special classes Elementary grades and kindergartens . Home economics Employment and certification of teachers Supervisor of— Art instruction Bands and orchestras. Home economics Physical education...* Boys' clubs High-school music Elementary grades and kindergartens . Supervising teacher of— Penmanship Penmanship Special classes Music Music Music Music Art instruction Home economics Special classes Domestic art Child study Visiting teacher Superintendent of buildings Ch ief engineer 18^500 3»Q60 1,28D 2,420 2,420 2,420 2,420 3,000 2,200' 2,200 1,793 1,793 1,280 3,500 2,200 1,980 528 1,500 1,440 1,168 1,080 8,000 5,500 3,200 3,400 4,500 3,400 3,900 3,100 4,100 4,100 4,000 3,800 3,300 3,600 3,500 3,200 3,000 2,500 2,450 2,300 3,000 2,050 2,050 2,300 2,100 2,350 2,000 2,350 2,300 2,200 2,500 2,150 2,500 2,000 2,800 3,500 3,000 BOCEDESTEB, N. T.— continued. Chief draftsman Examination board (part>thne), 2 mem- bers, each Two chauffeurs, each Four attendance officers, each Attendance officer (part-time) One clerk One clerk *. One clerk One clerk Two clerks, each One clerk One clerk Two clerks, each Telephone operator Secretary Secretary One stenographer *. . One stenographer Two stenographers, each One stenographo* Two messengers, each One messenger Two messengers, each One messenger Thirteen messengers, each Twelve messengers, each SilLT LAKE CUT, UTAH. Superintendent Assistant superintendent of high schools. . . Assistant superintendent of grade schools. . Secretary Statistician Stenographer Purchasing agent and olerk Bookkeeper Secretary Stenographer Assistabt Superintendent, buildings and grounds Office engineer Assistant engineer Ofllce clerk Stenographer Attendance officer Assistant attendance officer Assistant attendance officer Stenographer Supervisor of— Primary grades Exceptional children Art Physical education Art and handwork Domestic art Writing Industrial arts. Home economics Music Assistant .......................... Instrumental music English Modem languages Part-time Health direction 13,000 250 1,300 1,020 408 1,600 1,304 1,300 1,260 1,200 1,162 wo 960 1,326 1,600 1,260 1,266 1,140 1,020 960 1,200 1,060 960 900 780 600 6,000 4,350 3,600 2,040 1,320 1,320 4,500 2,220 2,040 1,500 780 4,200 2,700 2,640 1,680 1,200 2,600 2,000 1,500 960 3,500 2,500 2,800 2,500 2,000 2,000 2,400 2,600 2,000 2,550 1,600 1,500 2,500 2,500 3,350 3,000 SALABIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICEBS. 85 Salaries in detail/or cities of aver lOOfiOO population — Continued. SAN Axnatno, isx. Superintendfliit Aaaistant superintendent Business manager Superintendent of buildings Secretary to superintendent Bookkeeper Two stenographers, each. Physidan (9 months) Dentist (9 months) Nurse (9 months) Nurse (9 months) Nurse (9 months) Two attendanoe officers, each. Boards' attorney Two supervisors, grammar and primary. Three supervisors, music, art and phy. ed., each BAN nUNOSOO, CAUF. Superintendent Five deputy superintendents, each . Secretary Stenographer Messenger derk Chief attendance bureau. SCBAMTOH, PA. Superintendent of schooli. Supervisor of-— Drawing Drawing Drawing Music Music Sewing Sewing Sewing Primary grades Penmanship Kindergartens One attendance officer Three attendance officers, each One attendance officer Health Inspector Secretary of school board Superintendent of buildings and supplies. Superintendent's secretary SBATFLB, WASH. Superintendent Three assistant superintendents, each Headof dept. of method for grammar grades. Head of dept. of method for primary grades . Supervisor of— Drawing Garden work Home economics (2), each Manual arts Music (3), each Music... Music Peamanshlp Physical education (4), each Attendance 16.000 3,534 3,600 1,782 1,506 1,770 1,200 900 900 1,237 1,069 990 1,800 600 2,214 1,960 4,000 3,600 2,220 1,920 1,800 1,800 6,000 1,890 1,770 1,650 2,150 1,770 1,800 1,870 1,550 2,290 1,990 2,010 1,800 1,500 1,200 1,800 3,600 3,600 1,800 10^000 5,100 3,840 3,300 3,000 3^300 2,700 8,000 2,760 2,400 2,100 2,940 2; 760 3,000 SEATTLE, WASH.— continued. Director of— Vocational guldaqoe Home economics Manual training Music Orchestras Physical education Two coordinators with vocational guidance, each Three attendance officers, each Home visitor CkmiptroUer Bookkeeper One derk One clerk One derk Two derks, eadi One derk One derk •. Two stenographers, each Two stenographers, each Two stenographers, eadi «... Three stenographers, each SPOKANE, WASH. Superintendent of schods Secretary of board Assistant secretary of board Superintendent of buildings and grounds. . Accountant Secretary to superintendent .^ Superintendent's assistant... Supervisor of— Drawing Music Writing and evening school Household arts Physical training (2), each. . .' Manual training Health Attendance officer Four stenographers, each One stenographer One stenographer One stenographer spRnronELD, mass. Superintendent Assistant superintendent Secretary to superintendent. Supervisor of— Art and handwork Assistant Assistant Assistant Assistant Assistant Music Assistant Assistant Nature study Assistant Physical education Two assistants, each. Home economics , $4,aoo 3,660 3,660 3,660 2,580 3,660 2,760 2,200 1,620 3,900 2,100 1,800 1,680 1,500 1,320 1,200 2,400 1,440 1,320 1,140 1,080 5^800 3,000 2,400 2,800 2,400 2,400 2,250 2,560 2,560 2,450 2,250 2,250 2,250 3,400 1,800 1,380 1,260 1,140 1,080 5^800 3,500 1,650 3,176 2,200 2,060 1,960 1,870 1,630 3,175 2,250 1,800 2,275 1,930 2,975 1,800 2,700 36 SALARIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS. Salaries in detail far cities of over 100,000 population — Continued. spBiNGnELD, MASS.— ntinued. Manual arts (this in addition to regular salary as head of department in high school) $600 Director of psychological laboratory (two- flfthtlme) 1,770 Visiting teacher 1,800 Director of evening-school extension (this in addition to regular salary as head of de- partment in high school) 700 Assistant (in charge of immigrant eduear tion) 2,000 Chief clerk 2,800 Bookkeeper 1,400 Two clerks, each 1,400 Stenographer 1,200 Two clerks, each ...., 1,200 Two derks, each 1,000 Onederk 900 Attendance officer 2,300 Two assistant attendance oflloers, each 1,900 One assistant attendance officer 1,800 One assistant attendance officer. 1,500 srr. LOUIS, mo. Superintendent of Instruction 8,000 Two assistant superintendents, each 5, 000 Three assistant superintendents, each 6, 000 One assistant superintendent (pnndpal, Harris Teachers' College) 6,000 One assistant superintendent 4,600 Chief clerk 2,600 Teachers' clerk 2,300 One stenographer 1,500 One stenographer 1,400 One stenographer 1,300 Five stenographers, each 1,200 Messenger 600 Chief attendance officer 4,000 One assistant attendance officer 1,600 Nineteen assistant attendance officers , each 1, 900 Clerk 1,400 Director of hygiene 5,000 Supervisor of hygiene 2,560 Three inspect(»?, each 1,900 Two inspectors, each 2,100 Nine inspectors, each 2,300 Supervisor of nurses 1,750 Two nurses, each 1,200 Four nurses, each 1, 300 Two nurses, each 1,400 One nurse 1,500 Fourteen nurses, each 1,600 Two nurses, each 1,920 Director of psychoeducational clinic 4, 300 Clerk 1,500 Supervisor of— Continuation schools 4,100 Drawing and manual arts 5,000 Educational extension 4, 300 Kindergarten 4,000 • Penmanship 4,000 Music 4,000 Physical training 4,000 Primary (3), each 8,400 ST. L017I8, Mo.-~ooatinued. Supervisor of-— Continued. Schoolgardens $2,960 Spedalschools 2,600 Assistant supervisor of— Drawing (3), each 1,900 Drawing (1) 2,000 Drawing (4), each .' 2,300 Music (3), each 1,900 Music (2), each 2,100 Music (6), each 2,300 School orchestras 8,200 Penmanship 2,200 Physical training (1) 2,000 Physicaltrainlng(2), each 2,100 Physical training (1) 2,200 Physicaltraining(4), each 2,300 Physical training (1) 2,500 Schoolgardens 1,700 Building department: Superintendent of buildings 7,600 Stenographer 2^093 Stenographer 1,465 Chlefclerk 3,210 Clerk, first rank 2,093 Clerk, second rank 1,672 Clerk, third rank 1,405 Messenger 806 Chief engineer 4,000 Superintendent of construction 3, 210 Superintendent of heating and ventila- tion 2,556 Superintendent of heating repairs 2, 555 Superintendent of plumbing 3, 290 Superintendent of electric work 2,922 Superintendent of Janitors 2,922 Superintendent of shops and repairs ... 3, 510 Shops, head clerk 1 , 895 Shops, stock clerk 1,495 Shops, second clerk 1,465 Three building superintendents, each. . 2, 010 Two draftsmen, each 2,700 Landscape gardener 2,922 Meter reader 1,750 Head garage man and chaulTeur 2,219 Second garage man 1,603 Truck driver (shops) 1,891 Supply department: Superintendent of supplies 6,000 Assistant to superintendent of supplies 3, 106 Stenographer 1,590 Cashier 1,880 Inspector of supplies 2, 400 Clerk, first rank 2,100 Clerk, second rank 1,920 Clerk, third rank 1,740 Clerk, fourth rank 1,560 Clerk, fifth rank 1,880 Clerk, sixth rank 1,260 Messenger 720 Auditing department: Auditor 5,000 Chlefclerk 3,200 Clerk, first rank 2,300 Clerk, second rank 1,960 Clerk, third rank 1,675 SALABIBS OF ADMINISIHATIYE OFFIGEBS. 37 ScUarieB in detail for cities of over 100,000 population — Gontinued. n. LOUD, MO.— continued. Law department:. Attomey Floanoe department: Assistant to secretary-treasorer . Stenographer Stenopapher Oashler Assistant cashier Paymaster.'. Clerk, fint rank Clerk, second rank Clerk, third rank Clerk, fourth rank Clerk, fifth rank Telephone operator n. PAUL, warn. Deputy commissioner (business manager) . Superintendent of schools Assistant superintendent of schools Director of research Assistan t director of research Director of attendance Truant officer Truant officer Director of hygiene Superintendent of buOdings Assistant superintendent of buildings Inspector of fuel and heating ];>lants Bookkeeper Clerk One stenographer Two stenographers, each Two stenographers, each Two stenographers, each SupervJscrof— Grammar grades (assistant superin- tendent) Primary grades and kindergarten Ifannal training and vocational train- ing Music Art Physical training Domestic scienoe Special classes Supplies Gardens Assistant supervisor of music Assistant supervisor of music Assistant supervisor in charge of kin- dergartens Two assistant supervisors of art, each. . Assistant to superviaora (research division). ST&ACUSE, N. T. Superintendent Clerk ;. Assistant derk Secretary to superintendent Superintendent of buildings and Janitors. . Two attendance officers, each Gne attendance officer , 94,500 7,600 4,aoo 2,600 1,650 3,500 2,aoo 2,300 2,400 2,200 2,000 1,500 1,450 1,100 3,300 6,000 2,600 3,800 2,500 3,400 2,040 1,740 3,850 2,500 2,475 2,475 1,800 2,040 2,040 1,006 1,548 1,488 3,300 2,860 3,«X) 2,700 2,600 2,650 2,600 2,400 1,658 1,850 1,060 1,860 1,860 1,860 1,620 6,000 2,800 1,800 2,000 2,600 1,500 1,060 BTBACUBB, N. T.— Continued. Census derk Assistant derk Assistant derk Custodian of supplies Supervisor of— Grades Kindergartens Industrial education. Music Assistant Drawing Assistant Physical education . . TOLEDO, omo. Superintendent of schools Assistant superintendent Assistants in charge of special departments: Manual training Bxtension Vocational training Supervisor of— Physical training Art Music Music Kindergarten Grades I-n Grades in-IV Grades Vn-Vm Nature study Penmanship *... HomeeoonomlGS Health Attendance department: Chief attendance officer Three attendance officers, each Two attendance officers, each One attendancci officer aerk CJIerk Superintendent's derk TRENTOK, N. J. Superintendent Assistant superintendent . . Stenographer Two stenographers, each . . Clerk Director of primary grades. Supervisor of— Music Assistant Art Assistant Physical training Domestic science Manual training Assbtant Medical director Four inspectors, each One inspector One nurse Three nurses, eadi $1,600 1,000 900 1,200 3,700 2,460 3,600 2,880 2,160 2,460 1,800 2,600 0,310 4,000 3,760 8,200 3,600 2,800 2,500 2,8GO 2,200 2,600 2,500 2,200 2,200 2,500 2,200 2,200 1,000 1,800 1,600 1,350 1,200 1,080 1,020 1,600 7,000 2,100 1,300 1,200 1,460 2,260 2,360 1,850 2,350 1,850 2,150 2,260 2,900 2,050 4,600 900 300 1,300 1,260 38 SALARIES OF ADMINISTRATIVE OmCERS. Salaries in detail jor cities of over lOOfiOO population — Continued. TBXNToN, N. J.— continued. Onenurso tl»200 Three nurses, each 1,150 Onenurse 1,100 One nurse 1,050 Dentist 1,650 Extension education director 4,500 Clerk 720 Two attendance officers, each 1,500 One attendance ofacer 1,300 Three attendance officers, each 1,200 Twoattendanceoffioeis, each 1,100 One attendance officer 700 Supervisor of working papers 1,220 School psychologist 2,300 Continnatlon-achool director 800 Business manager 3,500 Clerk 1,800 Secretary board of education 3,000 Assistant secretary, board of education — 2,000 WASHINCiTON, D. C. Superintendent 6,000 Two assistant superintendents, each. 3, 750 Director, intermediate instruction 2, 900 Director, primary instruction 2,900 Thirteen district principals, each 2,900 Secretary •2,000 Financial clerk » 2,000 Oneclerk » 1,600 Two clerks, each. •1,600 Oneclerk '. •1,400 Three clerks, each •1,000 Oneclerk •900 Two stenographers, each • 1,000 Two messengers, each • 720 Supervisor of— Domestic art »2,000 Domestic science • 2,500 Drawing •2,500 Penmanship ^2,400 Physical training ^2,500 Manual training ^0 2,900 Music 2,500 WILMINQTON, DEL. Superintendent 6,000 Assistant superintendent 8,000 Director of vocational education 4,500 Clerk, office of vocational education 1, 200 Clerk, office of Americanization depart- ment 1,200 Supervisor of — Amerlcaoisation classes. 3,000 Sewing 2,000 Musfe 2,000 Art 2,000 Nature study 1,800 Physical education 1,500 Chief attendance officer 1,500 Two assistant attendance offloers, each .... 1, 150 Medical inspector 1,500 • Plus 1240 bonus. whjunoton, del.— oontinned. Three nurses, each Clerk, superintendent's office. . . Secretary, board ol education Clerk, office board of education. . Clerk, office board of education. Supervisor of buildings Chief engineer woBCiarncB, mass. Superintendent of schools Two assistant superintendents, each One assistant superintendent Director of— Drawing Home economics Kindergarten Manual training Music Physical training Writing Agriculture Two supervisors of Americanization and evening practical arts, each Business manager and clerk of school com- mittee Chief attendance officer Supervisor of attendance Chief derk, superintendent's office First assistant derk, superintendent's office Chief dork, business manager's office First assistant derk, business manager's office Stenographer Stenographer Stenographer Stenographer Clerk, attendance officers Inspector of schoolhouses and supervisor of Janitors Director of school hygiene TouNoarowN, omo. Superintendent Assbtant superintendent Director of schools Clerk-treasurer Assistant derk Secretary Secretary Secretary, substitute (per month) Supervisor of— Drawing Music Kindergarten and primary Penmanship Domestic sdence and arts Manual training Physical education and hygiene Assistant supervisor of— Physical training Music Four attendance officers, each 1* Plus $120 bonus. $1,200 1,200 2,500 1,400 1,000 2,500 2,500 6,000 4,600 4,250 8,250 2,000 1,800 8,250 8,250 8,250 2.000 8,250 1,700 4,600 2,100 2,100 2,000 1.400 2,200 1,887 1,200 1,150 90O 825 918 2,: 2,500 9,000 4,500 5,000 2,780 2,220 1,320 1,260 70 2,850 2,376 3,000 2,875 2,250 2,975 8,300 2,860 2,000 1,< o KarVtiI'd Univinlty> kibnry of tht Graduate 8 of Education DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATKMM BULLETIN. 1 92 1 , No. 3 1 MONTHLY RECORD OF CURRENT EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS INDEX FEBRUARY. 1920— JANUARY, 1921 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFTICE 1921 i ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION HAT BB FBOCUUCD FBOM THE SUFEBINTENDEMT OV DOCUMXNTS OOYERNlf ENT PBIMTiNO OITICE WASBmOTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY MONTHLY RECORD OF CURRENT EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS: INDEX, FEBRUARY, 1920— JANUARY, 1921. INTRODUCTORY NOTE. The present bulletin constitutes a complete author and subject index to the 2,380 entries contained in the 10 numbers of the Monthly Record of Current Educational Publications issued from February, 1920, to January, 1921, inclusive. The record was published each month during this period, with the exception of July and August. The references in the index are to the item numbers which run consecutively through the 10 issues of the record for the year. This bulletin is designed to serve institutions and persons desiring to preserve a permanent bibliography of educational literature for 1920, which may be formed by binding the 10 numbers of the Monthly Record for the year with the index here presented. [The numbers refer to item, not to page. Names of persons about whom aiticles or books are written anrl roforencps to s'^bjerts. are printecl in small cai)itals.] Abb, Edmund, 1716. Abbot, £. S., 970. Abbot, Julia W., IS98, 22^\ (5). Abbott, W.L.," 2102. Abelson, A. R., 1699. Abrams, A. W., 2022. Academic deore£s. See Dzgrh-kh, acudenac Academic tenvhe. See Teachers, tenure. Academies, 446. Acher, R. A., 1815. Adams, Henry, 447. Adams, Mabel E., 1G97 (5), 169S (6). Adamson, J. W., 684, 1972. Addams, Jane, 680 (3). Adenoids, 1651. Adler, FelLx, 1897 (6). Administration, rural i^ctaool, 534; school, loj-ios, 324-334, 676-5H8, 849-S52, 938 (21), 1111-1121, 13;{8. 1391-1408, 1637-1641, 1865-IS72, 1907 (22), i>122, 2124, 2133, 232J-2325; universllies and poUc.jes, 319, 834, 839, 2102, 2112, 2310, Zm. Adolescence, 547, 1212, 1438. Adult edvcation, 1706. Aeronautics, .'575. Agan, K. E., 1320. Agricultural colleges. Sec. Land-urant gul- LEGES. Agricultural education, 137-139, 3.so, 899-900, 902, 886 (1), (13), 1158, 1451 (li;, 1477, 1676, 1926- 1927, 2167-216S. Aguayo, A. M., 2244. Aikin, W. H., 1317 (5). Alabama home economics. assiM-iation, 89^. Alamka, education, 191. Albors, G. R., o*0. Albert, R., 1229. Alden, Florence D., 122. Alderman. E. A.. 2226. Aldrich. F. C, 369. Ale, Ada (J., 4(»3. Alexander, Adah, 2:W1 » 12). Alexander. C. C, 92. Ale.vaudur, (\irler, l.'Wl, 1840, 2::J(). Alexander. Jessie M., 2002. Alexander, Virginia M., (V2\K Alexander, W. P., ]in2(\). Aley. K. J., 5.i7. 1371 (9), 22»i7. Alfonsi, .Vlfonso, 1122. ALtiEBKA, teuchinp, 1310; test.-, ii", 21>; vaUie. V2:>'.K .VHKNS. .Vff AMERICAM/ATins Tm NJl'iK WTS. All-vear school.'*, U'.H. Allbnfl. SirT.C, Us.'}. crUUKNT KnrCATK.'XAL PrBT.lCATIOXS INDEX. AUeu, Annie W., 12^{2. AIlen,O.F., 1103(3). Allen, E. £., 2368 (13). Allon, Roland. SS4. Allen, W. H., 1938 (8). Alloy, Sadie M., 1364(5). AlUson, Grace E., 1482 (3). Aim, O. W., 1772. Almack, J. C, 430, 1544 (2), 201)2, 2177. Altmanu, G. J., 2333. Amadeo, Tomtis, 900. Ambidexterity, 719. American academy of political and social science, 60. American association of collegiate registrars, 2301. American association of instnictors of the blind, 2368. American association of unlyersity professors, 91, 834. American association to promote the teaching of speech to the deaf, 1697-1608. American automobile association, Washington, D. C, 2356. American bar association. Section of legal educa- tion, 140. American child hygiene association, 1418. ▲MXBXCAH E. F. SCROOL of riNE ARTS, 409, 640. American historical association. Committee on history and education for citizenship, 396. American instructore of the deaf, 1698. American library association, 429. American medical association, 1480. American medical association. Council on medi- cal education, 906. American physical education association, 1 129. American psychological association, 464. American Red Cross, Washington, D. C, 1S9S. American school citisenship league, 176. American s<^ool hygiene association, 1883. American sociological society, 6S0. A1«RICAN1ZATI0N, 408-406, 641-647,''683:(15)-(16), 680 (8), 899 (7), 917-918, 038 (6), 939 (4). 049, 1170- 1171, 1194 (4), 1195 (2), 1198 (9)-(12), 1499-1503, 168!J-ie90, 1939-1943, 217^2181, 2362-2364; in Idn- dergartens, 274. Ames, E. W\, 636. Anderson, C. J., 1279. Anderson, H. W., 1111 (5), 1452. Anderson, J. T. M., 132 (10). Anderson, L. F., 1908. Anderson, V. V., 1700. Andrews, Fannie F. 176. Andrews, Hazel M., 1922. AngeU, J, R., 573, 836 (1), 899.(i). Angler, R. P., 2103. Anthony, G. C, 1163 (15). Anthony, Kathcrinc M., 909, 2003, 2133. Arbuthnot, Ann C, 1795. AEITHMETIC, 7S2: tosts, 730, 2009, 2247 (iv) (v). Armas, Maria J. de, 1587. Armentrout, W. D., 2134. Arms, Miranda R., 2169. Armsby, II. P., 101. Abmt alpha tlst, 179. Army intellioknce tests, 443 (2), 732, 740, I26s, 1576. See aho Intelliqenxe tests. Arnold, E. H., XViS (3). Arnold, Sarah L., 920, 2353. Arouovici, Carol, 1499. Arps, G. F., 479. Art education, 682 (11), 807 (24), 938 (19\ 1 1.>0 < 4 >- (5), 1194 (5), 1236 (6), 1579, 2351. Ashbaugh, £. J., 16. Ashton, Bessie L., 2274. Aspinwall, W. B., 1072 (1). Assembly, high school, 540. Associated Harvard clubs, S35. Association tor the adTancement of ]>rogre:>sive education, 201. Association of American agricultural colleges aii State and national music teachers associations, %in« Athearn, W. S., 713. Athletics, 866 (2). Atkins, H. G., 1294. Atkinson, Alfred, 1095. Atkin.son, J. H., 240. Attendaxce. See School attendance. Autln, Albert, 607. Avorill. L. A., 67, 212, 276, 799, 1325. Avery, D.. 1540 (4). Ayres, L. P., 1207. Ayres spelling scale, 2247 (ix). Baboock, K. C, 1725 (3). Bach, £. E., 1108 (10). Bach, R. P., 370. Backus, A. D., 1453. Backward cmLDREx, 657-658. Sec alto Eumk n.vtion; Exceptional children; Retardation^ Badley, J. H., 2186. Baebenroth, A. C, 314. Bagley, W. C, 584, 1349, 1355, 2127. Bailey, C. W., 970. Bailey, L. H., 1158. Bailey, Pearco, 1572. Bain. Road, 1.>M (1). Baird. W. K.. K37. RaJ-'cr. K. T>., 64. Bftkcr. (?. M., 42f>. IfiU, 2X\<). Baknr, I. O., Jdl (2.'i). Bnkor. X. 1)., m\ (4). Bjikpf, S. Jasephino. 2110 (.",). Baklrspiklh. Cal.. education, 17.N. f«il oni. A. (;.. ITW. BalcJoiisjM'rjrnr, Kornand, X?. Balfliu^'. (imnt, 1971 (>). BaMwin, H, T., (Wl. 1174, 2217. BaMwIn. K. C, Ull (11). CITRRENT EDUCATIOXAL PUBLKWTIOX'S — IXDKX. P.aldwin, Helm V., 8^7 (141. Baldinn. L. De W., 2317. B:ild\vin. S. E., 907. Rail, KatheriiieF., 901. Ballarrl, P. B., 1243. Ballon, F. L., 119S (1). !»AU.OU SCALE, 2247 fxil). Baltimore, public schools, 597. Bamb^^gor, Florence E., 1196 (5). Bamesberqer, Veld a C, 1588. Barbour, A. L., 1907 (4). Barker, Ernest, 451. Barnard, Plorenre, 79. Barnes, H. E., 1312. Barnes, J. H., 2104. Barnes, Walter, 234, 1547. Bamett, Albert, 1926 Barrett, E. R., 745 (2). Barrows, D. P., 838. Bartlett, L. W., 1332 (11). Bartiett, Murray, 2101. Barton, O. E., 375. Barton, J. W., 1406. Bass, Altha L., 1707. Bassett, Dorothy M., 2248. Batchelder, N. H., lt)60. Batdorf, S. F., 1332 (4). Bates, R. L., 2247 (Ui). Battenburg, J. P., 1073. Battle, K. P., 1206 (2). Bauchman, Ruby, 1600. Baxter, L. H., 891. Baxter, ilUdred F., 1023. Baylor, Adelaide .S., 2170. Beacli, Dorothea, 1475. Bear, Beatrice F-., 1056. Bear, Olive, 807 (22) l^oard, Fredorica, 2157. Beard, R. O., 1682. Beatty, W. W., 2250, 2272. Bcvk. David, 2338 (9). Beery, C. E., 860. Beeson, £. G., 471. Beeson, M. F., 1767. Belgium, education, \656. Bellamann, H. H., 793 (6;. Belote, T. T., iH. Bender, W. H., 1195 (5). BenodiPt, A. L., 1510. Benedict, 3f1r«., Margaret H., 751. Benetti BrunelU, Valeria, 699. Bengough, Thomas, 444 (10). Bengtson, Araalia AI., 1194 (8), 1602:(2). Benjamin, C. H., 1233. Bennett, C. A., 115C (6), 1520, 1909. Bennett, Ernest, 704. Bennett, G. M., 1564. Bennett, Margaret, 1564. Benson, O. H., 1199 (6), 1907 (13). Bergson, Henri, 7. Bernard, L. L., 141, 1521. Berry, D. B., 2247 (Lx). Berry. Elmw, 1429 (2). Berthod, Alm^, 134. Bcssoa, Aug., 741. Betelle, J. O., laH, 1414. Betts, O. H., 133, 810, 2158. Bcvan. A. 1).. US') (P. Bevtm. II. II.. 1096. 1215. Beverley. Clara. 1249. Bevier, Isabel, S98 (1). Bevlncton, W. H.. 918. BiPLE IN SCHOOLS. 1194 ( 1>. BmLE .STUDY, 1238. Biolaski, A. K., 2247 (iv). B igelow, ( J erl rude I. ,1773. Bigelow, M. A.. "49. Billig, Florence G., 488 (ft). BrsET SCALE, 472, 2247 (ill). Blvet tests, 726, 089, 992. BiNET-SiMON TESTS, 21, 729. 2002. Sce ai^o In- telligence TESTS. Bingham, Hiram, 149. Bingham, W. v., 845. BiNOHAMTON, N. Y., 5nirvoy, Qin. Biology, teaching, 263, 807 (ll): Junior c<>n»«.(>s. 1034. Bird sti oy, in eIemon). BizzeU. \V. B., 1726 (5). Black. N. F., 819. Black, VV. W., 277. Black-shear, Laura L., C82 in\ Blfiir, F. G.. 807 (2). Blair, Sir Roljerl. 1747. 2004. Blalfcly, V. L.. oil. Blakeman, Kdwuid, SS.'>. BlaiKhard, A. !!., 1163 (11;. Blanchard, Phyllis, 1177. Blanco y FAirhcr, Rufino. 120S, Blanguemon, Kdinond, 1220. BlanVenship, Ota, 2369. Bhmton, Annie W., 1.S4, 1392, 17UT. (2). BLuiton, Margaret G., 525 (2). Blanton, S. G., 1173(1). Blanton, Smiley, 525 (2). Bleycr, W. G.,34. BiJN'l), education, 410-411, 426, 236<. Bliss, C. P., 1163 (13). Bliss, D. C, 5S0, 617. Bliss, Daniel, 2224. Blumenthal, Frances, 17r»s. Boardman, H. P., 386. Boas, George, 150 Bobbitt, Franklin, 109, 3:15, 1065 (3), '2291, Bode, B. H., 10. Boggess. Helen M., 852. BogfTS, J., 131»3. Boiijcy, Mai: rice, 868. Boise, Id., education, 1736. Bolenius. Emma M., 1791. Bolspr, CM., 1865, 2303. Bolton, Euri Belle, 2230. Bolton, F. E., 841 (17b). Bond, B. W., 307. BonCfll. A., 1326, 1971(0). Bonner, U. R., UU (6), 1873, 2122. Bonser, F. G., 1234, 1387, 1042. Books axd reading. See Librawc^ and kk.vd- INO. Boone, R. G., 831 (3). Borglum, S. H., 409, 619. Boston. S'^hool comniitlee, SO. 6 cniHKNT EOrCATIONAl. PVULICATIONS — INDEX. IJostwick, A. K., 929, 1526. Bostwick, A. T.. 1726 (14). Botany, tcadiinc, m) {lly, high sdiooL--. ItfiS. BonKl6, (\. 1084. IJourpin, llnlwri. 1221. lJow(l8. Brainerd, J. F., 1709. Braistpd, W. C, 1164. Uraley, E. F., 1662. Bralley, F. M., 1726 (9). Brandenburg, XV. A., 820. BrannoD, M. A., 1097, 1725 OS), l^'A. Branom, F. K., 508, 772. Branom, M. K., 50, 482, 1774. Breck, Emma J., 1332 (7). Bmsliob, E. R., 1031. Bretnall, G. II.,2336. Brewer, J. M., 1156, 1472, 1«:J7. 166.'). Brewster, Kthel H., 498. Bridges, J. W., 1372. Briggs, T. H,. 1333 ,1825 (.si, 2260. Brigham, \. P.. 509-610, 773. Bright, Alan, 2301 (10). Bright CHILDREN. See Outed chimumn. Bristol, RulhL., 529. Brittain.M.L., 682(1). Brooks, E. C, 398. Brooks, M. S., 1356. Brooks, S. S., 987, 1250. Brooks, T. v., 2380. Broome, K. C, 1112. Brower, Lyle, 1910. Brown, Adelaide, 1118(3). Brown, E. E., 1930. Brown, K. M., 1111 (1). Brown, K. S., 872. Brown, (1. A., 1565. Brown, (Jertriide, 2056 (6). Brown, H. A.,75, 289, 1280. "Brown, J. S., 807 (5), 1971 (2i. Bro\ni, L. T., 1430. Brown, R. M., ia30. . Brown, Sanger, 1900. Browne, n. H., I99i<. • Browne, T. J., 347-348, WI. Brownell. IIorl)ert, 784, ia«. Brownlnir, Oscar, 190, 2276. Brub;icher. A. R.. 6K3 (I), 11?k .f>.. Bruce, A. A., 324. Bruce. P. A., 2301. Brurll.W. F.. 1.'>12(11). Brufere, R.W.,763(2). Bruhn, Martha E., 1697 (2). Brush, U. R., 2171. Bryan, E. A., 1666. Bryan, E. B., 460. Bryan, J. S., 81. Bryan, W.L., 1194 (9). Bryant, Sophie, 1447. BUCER, M.\RTIN, 1. Buchanan, James, 444 (1). Buehiinan, M. A., 444 (14). Buchanan, R. E., 1195 (6). Buck, (leorge, 1094 (4). Buck, P. M.,294. Buckingham, B. R., 724, 807 (10), (27), 1769. BUCKINOU.KM SPELLING SCALE, 2247 (ix). Buffalo. Uxtversity, 1380. Buffum. I). L., 2268. Bulger, Charles, 566. Bullowa, Alma M., 526. Bunce, E. F., 2123. Bunker, F. F., 1541 (1). Burliank, E. D., 490, 746. Burdick, Anna L., 414. Burttiu of oducjitional dramatics. New York City, 203S. Burgess, EIizuJ)eth ('., 1-182 (10). Burgess. G. K., 1864. Burgess, W. R., 1615, 1647, 2227. Biu-getl, E.irl, 576. Burkhard, Oscar, 1019. Buplingame, L. L., 1034. Burnell, L. S., 1907 (9). Burnhmn, Ernei?t, 5.i0. Burnham, Mabel T., 1347 (3). Buniham, W. H., 213. Bums, A. T., 1939. Burns, James, 1908. Burrall, Jessie L., 2180. Burrldgo, O. A., 1907 (8). Burris, W. P., 684, 1113. Burritt,O.H., 2368(12). Burrows, Mark, 804 (1). Burt, Cyril, 12, 17. Burton, M. Le R., 461, 683 (3), 1371 i3), 2106-2IO7, 2305. Busch, Wilhclm, 965. Bush, I. B., 683 (20). Bush, S. H., 151. Bushnell,C. J., 875. BU.SINK.S.S EDUCATION. S(i < (.J.MMKRl lAL KIiUCA- TION. Butler, F. C, 641. Butler, H. B., 1418(5). Butler, N. M., 93, 1748. Buttelnmn. C. V., 57. Butterfleld, E. W., 13.11. Butterfield, K. L., 899 (.'.). But trick, Wallace, 16a>. Bult.s, A. B., GS5. Byington, E. H., 2010. i c. I Cadraore. Edith, 243. I Cahen, Maurice, :}8. ■ Calcutta university ^I'>n-. 2»K>. 4.'>l. ; Caldwell, H. If., 088. CURRENT EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS — INDEX. CaldweU, O. W., 1313, 1347 (1). Cslhaan, J. T., 1603. CaliComia high sdiool teachers' association, 13S2. Call, A. D., 186. Callahan, John, 1150 (U). Callaway, P. P., 295. Calvin, Henrietta, 1542 (6). Cameron, H. C, 985. Camp-fire qibls, 1439. Campbell, Blanche £., 682 (6). CampbeU, L. W., 2247 (U). Canby, H. S., gll (19), 1788. Capen, S. P., 94, 448, 1092 (2), IIU, 1371 (2), l(>r{2, 2124, 2301 (2), 2312 (4). Capps, A. O., 807 (8), 2030. Carbodc, C. H., 1786. Carlisle, J. O., 499, 760. Cannichael, H. F., 1826. Carmiehael, R. D., 846. Carn^e endowment, for international peace, 178. Carnegie foundatian Cor the advancement of teach. ing, 681, 1350. Carney, Slabel, 683 (10), (13), 1602 (3). Carothers, W. H., 61. Carr, J. F., 642, 1092.(4). Carrier, F. W., 2055. GsuTuth, W. H., 1580. Carson, C. H., 745 (3). Gary, C. P., 290,577,1548, 1979. Case, a. W., 1163 (9). Caae, H. C, 1111 (7). Oassidy, M. A., 882, 936 (8). Cates, H. J., 2155. Cates, Joseph, S77. Catholic chnrch in the U. S., 880. Cathouc chubch. See Roman Cath< )Mc church. CauJlery, Maurice, 705. Cavanaugh, R. E., 821. Center, Stella S., 625. CesTEE, Charles, 2. Chadsey, C. E., 14S2 (5). Chalard, J., 1553. Chamberlain, A. H., 831 (1), (5), lf^l-liA2. Chamberlain, Essie, 35, 807 (21). Chamberlain, J. F., 2051. Chamberlain, Mabel, 18a5. ChamberUn, T. C, 841 (7). Chambers, G. O., 2301 (18). Chambers, W. G., 1198 (17). Champenois, J. J., 2301 (4). Chancellor, W. E., 296, 1419, 14^is, 1«B. Chapiii, Lucy S., 2345. Chapin, R. B., 1911. Chapman, C. E., 19S8. Chapman, J. C, 2005. Chapman, J.* J., 763 (1). Chapman, J. V., 936 (4). Chappie, B. P., 2368 (7). Charters, W. W., 725, 1831. Ctiase, Daniel, 601 (4). Chase, H. W., 1373. Chase, Mabel J., 1907 (3). Chatburn, G. R., 1163 (8). CHBldSTRT, 1166; Study, 262; teaching, 939 (7>, 1040, 1275. Cherrington, F. B., 202. Chicago, III. Department of health, 599. Chicago principals' dub. Committee on standards and measurements, 31. CmLD LABOR, 878,880-881,1897 (2)<(3), 1902. Child study, 12-15, 212-216, 718-723, 1244, 1246, 1564^ 1756,2001,2244-2246. CJhild WKLTARK, 364-365, 877-881, 1136, 1418 (6)-(8), 1444-1446, 1661, 1897-1902, 2165-2156, 2S42-2344; England, 1898; Scotland, 1898. Childrek, care, 1418; education, 1442; health, 1419, 1897 (5), 1899, 2140 (2), (4)-(6). Childs, Breta W., 774, 1907 (7). Childs,L. W.,1651. Chilb, education, 1988. CmNA, education, 8-9, 967. Chrisman, Oscar, 718. Chubb, Percival,2338 (1). Church, Emma M., 1150 (5). Churchill, Q. B., 443 (4). Cincinnati. TJNivERsmr, 1380. Citizenship, 396-402, 683 (1), 913, 914-1X16, 1199 (3), (12); training. 111, 911, 1332 (1), 1345, 1406-1497, 1499, 1542 (4), 1686-1687, 1725 (11), 1726 (5). Ciulli-Paratore, Laura, 707. Civic kdxtcation, 147-148, 396-402, 636-640, 683 (5), 911-916, 1167-1169, 1236 (2), 1496-1498, 1684-1687, 1937-1938, 2177-2178, 2360-2361 . Clapp, F. L., iH16. . Clapp,U.L., 1235,2246. Clark, A. Bess., 235. Clark, Bertha M., 516. Clark, Donald, 452. Chirk, E.M., 255. Clark, Harry, 187, lh52. Clark, M.G., 2326. Clark, Mary E., 1592. Clark, R.L., 2247 (V). Clark, T. A., 567, 1061. Clark, Taliaferro, 116. Clark, W. W., 2195. Cla«i8ical education. See Liberal education. Classics 41-43, 251-253, 498-502, 763, 961, 1027-1028, 1303-1304, 1595, 2267. See al»o GREEK language; Latin language. Claussenius, Marie, 1230 (6). Claxton, P. P., 155, 249, 444 (3), 528, 687, 1062, 1146, 1194 (13), 1374, 1616, 2301 (1). Clemens, M. A., 2247 (x). Clement, J. A., 1760. Clement, J. H., 291, 819. Clements, Katherine, 1236 (6). Cleveland, Elizabeth, 1701. Cleveland, Ohio. Board of education, 1617. Clow, F. R., 356, 768. Cobb, Sir. Cyril, 1989. Cobb, Stanwood, 203. Cobern, C. M., 2150. Cocks, O. G., 2257. Cody, F. L., 578. Cody, H. J., 444(2). Coe, G. A., 1072 (8), 1448. Coffml^n, L. D., 822, 1066, 1094 (6), 13«4 (4). Ck)hen, David, 618. Cohen, I. D., 1622 (4)-(5), 2362. Cohen, Joseph, 1252. Cohn, CaroUne, 643. Colbom, Lois, 2151. (Jolby, Elbridge, 1749, 2182. 8 CVRREXT EDIJCWTIOXAL PrBLICATlOXS — IXUKX. Colby, F. M., 768 (4). Cole, C. M., 2202. €k>le, Ruftis, 008. Colegrove, C. P., 1195 (8). CoUamore, Edna A., 2082. College entrance examination board, 2108. COLLEGB KNTRANCB BEQUIEEMBOTS, 1008, 1377. COLUBOB PRESIDBNTS, 1030. COLLBQB STUDENTS, in War, 322. CoLLBGBs. Su Higher education; Universi- ties AND COLLEGES. CoUings, P. McB., 2064. Collins, F. G., 1884. Colorado State teachers colloge, Oreeley, Colo., 2aS3. Colocta, G. A., 1560. Colton, H. S., 785. Columbia school of business, 1478 (i>-(2). COLUIIBU UNIYEBSriY, 03. Colvin, S. S., 443 (1), 1253. Colwell, N. P., 1480 (2). COMHBBaAL EDUCATION, 202, 384-385, 630, 895, 1451 (in), 1680-1681, 1930-1934, 2171-2172, 2354-2355. See also Corporation schools; Department aroBB education; Vocational education. COMMBBaAL GEOGBAPHT, 2062. Committee on history and education for citizenship in the schools, 637. COMMUNITT centers, 360, 605-606, 875, 2340. CoMPosmoN. See English language, composi- tion and grammar. COMPULspRT education, In Southern colonies, 329. Comstock, Anna B., 1042 (3). Conboy, F. J., 444 (11). Condit, A. T., 559. Coney, Charlotte, 1618. Conference of church workers in uuivorsilies, 609. Conference on rural education, 1072. Conjoint board of scientific societies, 195. Conneoticut. State board of education, 2363. Connor, W. !»., 1074. Consolidation op schools, 281, 284, 539, 800, 804- 805, 936 (5), 1055, 1053, 132S-1329, 1603-1605. Continuation schools, 938 (20), 1152-1153, 1520, 1622, 1624-1525, 2371. Cook, H. R. M., 1638. Cook, Katherine M., 68,5:».H04 (2), 1619. Cook, Luella B., 491. Cook, W. A., 1542 (7), (13). Cooke, J. D., 244. Cooloy, Anna M., 903. Cooley, R. L., 1152, 1522 (3). Cooper, C. E., 1798. Cooper, C. S., 2172. Cooper, Charlotte L., 1740. Cooper, F. I., 2138. Cooper, Irving, 1111 (9). Cooper, Lane, 251. Cooper, Mabel L., 1194 (7). Cooper, R. W.', 2301 (3). Cooper, Ruth D., 341. Cooperative system of education, 892, 1332(2). Cope, H. F., 1147. ComeU, W. B., 421. Cornell university, 2306. Comman, O. P., 1209. Correspohdence schools, 1521. Corson, D. B., 315, 1123. 1193 (3), 1394. Cortright, E. E., 1599. Corwin, R. N., 109S. Cosby, Byron, 804 (fl). Cotello, S. A., 1198(12). Council for hiunanistic studies, 195. Council of the allied association*; of public school teachers of Baltimore, 597. Coimts, G. S., 1003(4). Coursault, J. H., 1993. Courtis, S. A., 217, 990, 1270. Courtis tests, 2247 (iv). Courtney, ^fn. W. I*., 1507. Cousinct, Roger, 1750. Cowderj", K. M., 18. Cowles, M. K., 612. Cowper, Mary <)., 2366. Cox, E. M., 1332 (6). Cox, P. W. L., 1726 (2>. Cozsens, J. G., 542. Craddock, E. A., 2135. Crandall, W. G., 1926. Crane, Frank, 465. Crane, Julia E., 1316 (0;. Crathome, A. R., 1673. Craven, J. W., 2,301 (14). Crawford, I). L., 1854 (2). Crawford, R. V., 800, ia>5, l»i(>4-lflOo. Creech, J. L., 1S43. Crew, 1 lenry, 1035. Cripples, education, 1 .'».*». 5?^^ alto Soldiers, injur«fl, ret ducal ion. CroniwHl, < »tolia, 2:ra. Cross, ('. R., 31«. Cross, E. S., 1337. Crother-J, S. Mci.'., 2210, 2373. Crouter, A. h. E., Oi. 1U9S. Cl'BA, educution, \7A'2. CublKTloy, K. P., 1973, 2225. Cl'LTURAL EDITATION. St( LiBER.VL EDUCATION. Ciunmlugs, J. If., 1874. Cummin.'^, R. A., 156, 1S9I, isiM. Cunningham, Bess V., 20«2. Curran, Lorctta J., It07 (5j. Currens, F. 11., 1971 (16). CIRRENT EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS, 3-9, 1S4-200, 444 (n, 44S-15S, 687-712, 9-12-1HJ7, 1065, 1979-1992, 2226-2239. Current eventj^, teaching, 49. Curriculum, 104 (2), 195, 682 (4), 807 (3), (6), (8), (14), (16), (18), (2l)-(22), (25), 852, 1S77; elemen- tary schools, 104 (1), 444 (9), 975; normal schools, r>83 (19), 1067; rural schools, 536, 799, 801, 1325; sec- ondary schools, 712; nniversiiics and colleges, 1092 (5). Curtis, I^ucy S., 1427. Curti<5, W. v., S2, 1631(1). D. Dabnky, C. W., 1S62. Dalman, M. A., 218. Damon, Inez F., 1317 (4;. Datfu-osch, Frank, 1317 (3). Dancing, 127, 1285. Daniel, R. B., 682 (4). Daniels, E. R. K., 748. Daniels, Josephtis, 123. Darlu, A., 2238. Dartmouth college, [m. Daukes, S. H., 2141. CUBRENT EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS — INDEX. 9 DttTidaoD, P. E., 493, 2228. Davies, O. W., 1066. Davis, C. O., 9H. Davis, E. £., 1606. Davis, £. J., 453. Davis, F. a., Ifi07. Davis, J. B., 1094 (1), (7). Davis, jr. £., 1509. Davis, Jackaom, 2065. Davis, Hargaret E., 2046. Davis, Philip, 405. DaviSy W. H., 2247 (▼). Davis, W. M., 1799. Davisaa, W. B., 1199 (14). Dawson, Edgar, 147. Day, H. E., 1698 (4). Dayton, Ohio. 'Board of education, 802. Dkaf and dumb, education, 666, 1181-1183, 1610- 1512, 1697-1698, 1951-1953, 2192-2194, 2369-8870. D<^ey, Hermione L., 921, 2249. Deamer, Arthur, 853. Dean, A. L., 1854 (1). Dean, Arthur, 1196 (3). Dean, ACildred, 2041. Dean, W. H., 1167. Debates and debating, 1045. Detectivb childsen, 422-423. See alao Blind; CsiFPLEs; Deaf and dumb; Exceptional CHILDBEN; FE£BL&-MDn>ED. Deferrari, R. J., 1793. Deffenbaugh, W. S., 1396. Deobees, academic, 443 (4), 953. Delawakb, schools, 579. Df^ware. State board of education, 579. Dbunquenct. See Juvenile deunquenct. DeU, Floyd, 204. De Kille, A. E., 2374. Democxact, 1731. Democract and education. See Education AND DEMOCRACY. Dennis,L.H., 1198(16). Dental htqienb, 444 (ll)) 863, 1133, 1418 (5), 1654. Denver, (3olo. School district no. 1, 991. Der6me, Juvdnal, 1036» 1222. De Sanctis tests, 726. Detroit, Kich. Board of education, 2058-2059, 2229. Devine, W. H., 1420. De Voss, J. C, 19. Dewey, Evelyn, 2006. Devey, H. B., 580. Dewey, John, 967. Dickerson, R. £., 1148. Dickey, Frances, 2281. Dickinson, Dick, 488. Dickinson, Edward, 841 (23). Dickson, V. £., 2007-2008. Dietrich, ICarion C, 2070. Diflflsidorfer, R. £., 1149. Discipline, 594. See alto School manaoement. Dock, George, 387. Dodge, D. K., 807 (5). Dodge, Raymond, 443 (2). Doeblln, Kaud I., 1513, 2149. Dolch, E. W.,ir., 70, 1012, 2262. DoUlnger, V. M., 1372. Domestic science. Su Home economics. 68478—21 2 Donnelly, F. P., 371. Donovan, J. J., 865. Dorey, J. M., 444 (6) Dorsey, Susan M., 581. Ooty, Pamelia, 1482 (7) Doughton, iJaac, 1643. Douglas, H. R., 219, 777» 1611. Dowell, £. S., 2277. Downes, F. E., 83, 683 (2). Downey, Hary £., 2208. Downing, M. B., 1358. Doyle, H. O., 39. Dramatics, 234, 2038-2040. Drawing, teaching, 1150 (11), (17), 1907 (3)-(4).. Dresden, Arnold, 2047. Dresslar, F. B., 1648. Driggs, F. M., 1697 (1). Driggs, U. R., 245. Driver, L. L., 986 (5). Drummond, A. M., 525 (3). Drummond, W. B., 472, 726. Drury, 8. S., 1335. Duchemin, I^^on, 963. Duddy, A. £., 740. DuiTey, W. R., 1585. DugBS, L., 1200. Diiggan, M. L., 2230. • Duggan, S. P., 8U (1), 1214. Duke, Emma, 2342. Duke, S. P., 1075. Dunbar, J. L., 1971 (7). Dunn, A. W., 1405. Dunn, Courtenay, 13, 466. Dunn, Esther C, 179. Dunn, Fannie W., 1328. Dumey, J. A., 971. D wight, Walter, 500. Eades, John, 714. Ear, diseases, 344. Earhart, WUl, 793 (8). Earlo, 8. O., 2327. Eastern arts association, 1907. Eastman, Dolph, 27. Eaton, Edith St. J., 1032. Eaton, J. J., 1037. Rbaugh, M. O., 2247 (vil). Eby, Frederick, 1726 (3). Eby, H. L., 20O5. Economics, teaching, 2280. Eddy, C. A., 861. Edmondson, C. H., 1854 (3). Edmunds, S. H., 1124. Edson, A. W., 582, 1407, 1514. Education, 203, 441 (13), 447. See aleo Current educational conditions; History op educa- tion. Education after the war, 317, 444 (3), 682 (2), 683 (5), 704, 936 (2), 937, 1092 (l)-(2), 1094 (6)-(7), (10), 1150 (2), 1194 (13), 1195 (1), 1199 (9), 1212, 1549, 1749; in Franc^e, 1226. Educ-vtion and democracy, 11, 211, 330, 333, 363 (10), 680 (1), 683 (3), 936 (6), 972, 970, 1060,1195 (8), 1240, 1392, 1542 (3), 1557, 1561, 1612, 1733, 1984, 2072.. Education and state, 172.5 (7). 10 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS — ^INDEX, Education and the war. 208. Education extension, 104, 683-664, 1520-1526, 1706, 1956-1059, 2202-2207. Su alto Univsrsitt ex- tension. Educational ueasueements, 20, 28, 724-725, 737, 938 (2), 1198 (l)-(2), 1240, 1251-1262, 1265, 1257, 1259, 1262, 1264-1265, 1209, 1577, 1757, 1768. 2003, 2011, 2015, 2250, 2252. Educational progress, 1726 (3). Educational pstcholoqy, 12-15, 212-216, 464-469, 720-723, 97^-986, 1242-1248, 1565-1571, 1763-1756. 1998-2000. Educational reconstruction, 049. Educational sctrveys. See Survbts, edueatioDal. Educational tests, 16-26, 217>23S, 447 (17), 470-481, 727, 736, 739, 968 (16), (18), 987-1006, 1163 (6)-<6),' 1250,1253-1254, 1256, 1258, 1263, 1266, 1268, 1420 (1), 157^1576, 1757-1771, 1971 (9), 2002-2015, 2247-2249. 2251, 2253. See also Inteluoencs tests, and namet ofeul^ecte and names of teals. Educational theory. See Teachino. Educators, 1. Edwards. A. S., 1994. Edwards, Glen, 1396. Edwards, Howard, 899 (7). Egan, J. B., 2330. Egbert, J. C, 1478 (1). EgglestoD, M. W., 613. Ehringhaus, Fr., 708. Elam, S. S., 986 (7). Elementary education, 1234. EumNATiON OP PUPILS. See Backward chil- dren; Retardation. Eliot, C. W., 1400 (3). EilM, J. B., 372. Elliott, G. R., 940. Elliott, O. L., 2301 (19). ' Ellis, A. G., 14S4. Ellis, Pen Carlos, 2023. Ellis, Mabel B., 87?, 1875 (3). Ell wood, C. A., 876, 1496. Elmore, Emily W., 349. Elocution. See Speech training. Elson, H. W., 841 (12t/). Emerson, W. R. P.. 1421. Enard, Paul, 410. Engelhardt, N. L., 114, 978, 1650. Engineering education, 386, 390, 395, 633, 1163. 1460, 1683, 1935-1936, 23o8. England, F. O., 1431. England, education, 455-456, 808, 1745; efementary education, 1740; secondary education, 456, S09, 1741. English, Mildred £., 2287. Enqush college, Rome, 1543. English language, commercial, 491, 2031; com- position and grammar, 490-492, 748-753. 1332 (16), 1592-1504, 2032-2039, 2262-2264; examination, 753; legal rwiuireraents, 495; teaching, 35-36, 239, 243-248, 635, 750. S07 (21)-(23), 938 (13), 1013-1015, 1287-1293, 1791, 2265; In elementary scrhools, 1199 (17); in normil schools, 492; to foreigners, 406. Enoli.sh language. See also Oral English. English utekature. Sec Literature. Ensign, F. C, 1195 (1). Erb, J. L., 520, 807 (19), 1318 (8). Erd, R. L., 2147. Ericson, E. E., 1667. ErsWlne, John, 942, 1731. Estabrooke, W. L., 262. Estes, W. L., jr., 2142. EsUU, H. F., 1726 (12). Ethical culture school, New Yortc dty, 1140. Ethics, 1143. Ettinger, W. L., 102, 1522 (1), 1806. Eubank, R. 8., 036 (12). Eugenics, teaching, 1659. Europe, higher education, 1214. European war and EDucAxiOff, H, 97; in th«- * United States, 44(1), (8). Evans, Elida, 926. Evans, Florence, 807 (17). Evans, J. M., 1620. Evans, O. D., 1522 (2), 1907 <16)-(16). Evans, W. A., U99 (7). Evenden, S^S., 1844. Ewalt, Clara C, 1792. Examinations, 595. Exceptional children, 155-103, 419-428» 666-662,. 92&-927, 118^1187, 1513-1619, 1080-1706^ £054-1965, 2195-2201. See ai»o Backward childrbic; (>b> FEcnvE children; OmBn chilmien. Exner, M. J., 2140 (11). Eyes, 864; oare, 342; defective, 865. F. Faguet, Emile, 2375. FalrchUd, Milton, 182 (0). Falichlld, R. W., 76. Falconer, Robert, 182 (2). Faries, J. C, 1606. Farley, Belmont, 560. Famsworth, C. H., 1806. Farr, Elsie W., 366. Faulkner, O. E., 1621. Fay, B., 1375. Federation of state medical boards o( the United Statm, 2173. Fee, Ira B., 1254. Feeble-minded, education, 158, 423, 1184, 1700, 1704, 1955. Felmley, David, 807 (1), 824. Felts, W. T., 807 (25). Feminear, Mary, 898 (5). Fenton, H. J., 95. Ferguson, G. O., 1573. Ferguson, H. O,, 1316 (9). Fergason, James, 1622, 1845. Fergujson, R. W., 2207. Femald, W. E., 422. Ferronl, Giaoomo, 454, 954. Fessenden, F. G., 632. Fetter, F. A., 841 (10). Fez. University, 1232. Fichandler, Alexander, 84. Fidler, Thtirba, 804 (3). Fields, Harold, 038. Fife, 11. H., jr., 2042. FUbey, E. T., 1150 (16). Klvance. See School finance; Univrrsitibs AND colleges, finance. Finch, C. E., 543. FInegan, T. E., 325, 1623. -pinelle, Jean, 964. CURRENT EDTJOATIOHAL PUBLI0ATI0H8 — ^INDBX. 11 FInley, O. W., 2000. Vintoy, J. H. , 132 (11), 1827, K78. Pinley, J. R., 583. Flimey, R. L., 534, 1306. FnuB psoTScnoN, 208. Flrestoae ship by track burara, FfrestoDe Park, Akron, Ohio, 1829. Fiaober, Aloys, 473. Fish, F. P., 2312 (7). Fisher, Oenevieve, 137. Fisher, Herbert, 955. Fisher, W. A., 793 (4). Fitigemld, Florence, 1768. FitsOerald, J. D., 807 (5), 2309. Fttzgeield, Roth, 912. Fitspatrlok, E. A., 551, 1080^ 1668, 2288. Fleck, H.S., 683 (11). Fleming, Mn. H. L., 1971 (18). Fletcher, Frank, 1741. Fletcher, W. H., 54, 1802. Fleary, O., 1587. Floanders, 0. W., 1196 (3). FlowerB, W. R., 2247 (vi). Flynn, H. B., 658. Foght, H. W., 202, 801, 2288. Folks, Gertnide, 108, 1397, 1443, 1807 (4). FolweU,W.W.,1336. Fontaine, Andr^, 706. Foote,J. M.,1387. Foote, John, 388. Forbes, C. H., 285. Forbes, Harrtet, 1132. Ford, S. Ctartnide, 2284. Forster, H. W., 268. Foas, H. I., 124. Foster, F.l£., 278, 2064. Foater, J. B., 1337, Foater, Joaephine C, 1761. Foater, W. T., 1376. Foater, W.T., 2060(1). Foolkes, T. R., 904. Fowler, B. P., 2071. Fraxnpton, J. B., 2067. Fmmpton, M. Q., 2301 <17). FRAKXLCr, Bbnjaxin, 1727. FsAMCE, edooation, 7, 1224; prtauiry education, 1225. Francis W. Parker school, ChloagD, HI., 1236. Frasier, G. W., 20. Fbatkrnitibs, college, 837; high school, 545. Freenum, F. N., 998, 1065 (5), 1758, 2198. French, Eilene, 793 (5). French Language, study, 1081; teaching, 179, 406, 1975, 2043; to soldiers, 412. Freund, Ernst, 1481 (2). Frey, C. N., 1661. Frtedewald, Salo, 2263. Friedman, Blisha M., sd., 1960. Fries, T¥llhelm, 700. FrieseU, H. E., 2175. Fronccak, F. E., 1130. Fiotblngbam, Channing, 1165. Fuller, R. O., 1807 (2), 2337. Fulmer, Grace, 2140 (9). Fonk, J. C, 1332 (15). FutraU, J. C, 1371 (6). o. Gaines, F. W., 683 (7). Gal, Jules, 778. Galloway, T. W., 841 (4). Galphi, C. J., 1066. Gamble, 8. D., 194. Gannett, J. A., 2301 (18). Gantvoort, A. J., 1316 (5). Garber, J. P., 188. Gardens, 791-792; home, 789; school, 1189-1160, 1907 (6)-(7), 1971 (16). Gardner, Ethel M., 1867. Garth, T. R., 1009. Gart]an,G.H.,1817(2). Garwood, R. 8., 1454. Gaaquet, F. A., Cardinal, 1643. Gaas, 8. B., 972. Gftthany, J. M., 1601, 1968 (8). Gatton, Harper, 986 (9). Gauae, F. A., 2024. Gftylor,C.W.,1115 Gebhart,J. G.,1885. Geddes, 8iT Auckland, 1216. Geddee, Grace, lOn (18). Gee, H. J., 1904. Gehrkans, K. W., 794. Gdster, Janet, 1418 (8). Geographt, 60(M(10, 772-775, 938(14), 2054, 2875; es- amiuaUons, 1799; teaching, 50^, 2S7-961, 506, 511-513, 776, 968 (8)-(9), 1197 (8H4), 1706, 8006, 3051, 3063; textbooks, 1030. Geometry, 54. Geoigla educational association, 682. Gerhard, E. 8., 750. German language, study, 38, 1019; teaching, 408, 2042. German system of soucAnON, 180, 460, 960, 965- 966,1517,1553-1554. Gerrish, W. C, 808, 1612. Gerry, H. L., 2273, 2307. Geyer, Bllen M., 1013. Gibb,fl.J.,S79. Giddings, T. P., 205, 1816 (4). Gifted childrxn, 487-438, 968 (18H14), (19), 1167, 1517, 1701, 1705. Gilbert, A. H., 1. Gflbert, F. B., 297, 585. Gilbert, I. B., 357. Gilbreth, F. B., 214, 1175. GUbreth, LUlian M., 214, 1175. GUdemeister, Theda, 1168. Gile, D. C, 544. Gillan, 8. Y., 1199 (10). GUlett, Lucy H., 1907 (12), 1928. Gillies, R. C, 1855. Gilman, Isabel A., 191 (1). GUoln, A. R., 1197 (4). Girl scouts, 355. Girls, education. See Woman. Glaser, Lulu, 683 (22). Glass, J. M., 1838. 1574. Glass, Jessie J., 1188. Gobron, Louis, 1223. Goch4, Paul, 1295. Goddard, H. H., 980. 12 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONa — ^IKDEX. Goddard, Mary C, 2360 (8). Godefroy, 1527. Godfrey, HoUis, 1463. Godln, Paul, 1566. Goeckel, H. J., 2357. Goggin,D.J.,444(18). Goldstatn, M. A., 1181, 2192. Gomph, Marguerite, 030. Goode, J. P., 257, 1006. Goodlander, Mabel R., 65,530. Goodnow, F. J., 1163 (1). Goodrich, Annie W., 1482 (1). Goodrich, C. F., 110. Goodrich, Ruth, 1542 (12), Gosling, T. W., 36, 148, 1046, 1153, 1382 (1). Gould, Sir A. P., 880. Gould, Arthur, 1339. Gould, J. C, 1350. Gourlet, Apolline de, 1234. Oradinq, 939 (9), 1126. See aUo PBOMonoM or puriLS. Graham, E. K., 1206 (1). Graham, J. N., 1296. Graham, W. P., 755. Grammar. See English lanouaqx. composition and grammar. Orammar schools. See Elbmxntart bduca> tion; Public schools. Grand Rapids union high school, 357. Orandgent, C. H., 1905. Grant, Emma B., 742, 1593. Graves, F. P., 338, 1528. Graves, Louis, 1981. Graveson, C. C, 809. Gray, Beryl, 2365. Gray, C. H., 996. Gray, C. T., 468 (2). Gray, P. L., 748. ■ Gray, R. F., 1940. Gray, W. S., 220, 2027. Grayson, G. T., 2376. Great Britain. Board of education, 350, 1990, 2040. Great Britain. Board of education. Welsh de- partment, 1057. Griat Bripain, education, 105, 1216. Greece, education, 1743. Greek language, study, 763 (5); teaching, 1277. Greene, A. M., Jr., 1035. Greene, W. C, 1562. Greener, G. C, 1674. Greenstone, Julius, 887. Greenwood, Arthur, 1706. Grier, N. M., 1038, 1652, 2331. Griffin, B. F., 1624. Griffith, B. W., 2208. Griffith, G. L., 2010. Griffith, I. S., 1150 (1), 1456. Grimes, B. J., 2247 (viU). Orlnstead, W. J., 807 (5), (15), 1024. Gros, J., 1225. Grose, H. B., 1040. Grove, C. S., 1071 (1). Groves, £. R., 1800. Gruenberg, B. C, 1031. Gruver, E. A., 2193. Gruver, H. S., 1072 (2). Grymoult, Pierre, 1232. Guenot, H., 923. Guerlin de Guer, Ch., 467. Gulick, L. H., 873. Gummere, R. M., 1201. Gunthorp, Horace, 1388. Guth, W. W., 317. Guthrie, W. D., 1680. Guy, J. F., 1198 (2). Haarhofr, Theodore, 1074. Haber, Roy, 1572. Haberman, J. V., 1255. Habert, H. M., 2360 (7). Hackney, E. L., 327. Hadley, A. T., 768 (3). Hadley, Theodosia, 610. Hadzsits, G. D., 41. Hasckel, Prof., 040. Hagedom, Hermann, 800. Haggerty, M. E., 727; Haig, R. M., 1868. HAILBTBXntT, 445 (1). Haines, C. G., 841 (13). Haines, T. H., 1184, 1186. Hale, G. E., 323. Hall, G. S., 1862, 1905. HaU, Jennie, 1236 (l)-(2). HaU, Percival, 1097 (4). HaU-Quest, A. L., 111-112, 1125, 1199 (3). (13). HaUett, E. S., 839, 862. Ham, Barbara E., 258. Hamilton, A. E., 353. Hamilton, C. A., 2368 (4). Hamilton, C. G., 1816 (3). Hamilton, D. E.f 400,760. Hamilton, R. L., 2354. Hamilton, Samuiel, 270. Hamilton, William, 101 (S). Hammelbaugh, J>. D., 1111 (4)« Hammond, Joeephine, 2125. Hand, W. H., 286. Handschin, C. H., 474. Handwork. See Manual TBinnKO . Handwrthng. See Writino. Haney, J. P., 610. Hanifan, L. J., 005. Hanna, J. C, 775, 807 (20), 1314. Hannan, F. W., 1663. Hanus, P. H., 1300. Haid, William, 1141. Harden, Max, 170. Harding, 8. B., 44 (1). Harding, W. L., lS37,1082i Hardy, Edith, 807 (22). Hare, Hobart A., 380. Harker, J. R., 1100. Harlan, Mabel L., 1675. Harlan'8 American hibtort tbct, 301(i. Harley, L. R., 501. Harllee, W.C, 1601. Harper, R. A., 1109. Harper, R. M., 475. Harris, Achsah, 486 (2). Harris, J. H., 545. Harris, T. H., 943. Harrison, Elizabeth, 528, 797. Hart, J. K., 2340. Hartman, Mrt. Lelia G., 2301 (8). GUBBSNT EDTJOATIONAL PtJBUCATIONS — ^IITDEX. 13 Sartwell, S. 0., M4, 1988. Habtabd SNoonBBBnro scbdol, 1986. HABTAXD OKADTJATS 8CBOOL OF BDUCAtlON, 1618. Habvasd law scbdol, 682. Harvard teaohMv* assodatUm, 1400. Habyabd vmmarrr, 568, UI75. Tbtrrtiy, Emma B., 2864. Harvey, N. A., 738. Haskiiis, C. H., fi04. Hawttngi, Montana, im. Hatch, 8. A., 1170. Hathaway, "mnlfred, 843, 2868 (8). Hatt, W. K., 683. Hawail UNTVSBsrrr, 1854. Hawley, W. H., 3088. Hayden, P. C, 286. Hayd«Q, P. M., 3270. Hayes, 8. P., 2388 (1). Hayford, J. F., 1168 (2). Hays, D. O., 780. Hayward, F. H., 1657. Hazard, Panl, 3048. HXALTH, 845, 1100 (7); instnietion, 117, 088 (4); officers, 635; rural, 845; school children, 541. Heamshaw, F. J. C, 1306. Hbatxno, 860, 862, 1111 (11). HBBBBW8. Ste Jxws. Heckel,A.K.,44(8). Hedges, h. H., 1684. Heinonen, J. C, 1408. Helnts, Victor, 1104 (12). Helderman, N. E., 1542 (10). Helltf, Otto, 206, 840. Henmon, V. A. C, 221,568. Henry, A. E., 888. Henry, ICary B., 1688. Htfring, J. P., 476, 1272. Hervey, W. L., 2088. Hetherlngton, C. W., 601 (8), 1136. Hevia, AureUo, 1732. Hewitt, C. C, 858. Hewlett,!. M.,683 (4). Heymann, A.,2338 (7). Hibben,J. 0.,318. Hlekle,Car6y , 85, 688. Hicks, l£innie,2368 ( 14). Higbee,F. Q.,300. High schools, 1347; Ohio, 1344, See alw Ju3aoB moHscHoou; Sbcondabt education; Six-and- ax FLAM. Hxohbb educatIOH, 01-100, 314-322, 566-572, 834- 844, 038 (1), 100^1108, 1371-1386, 163JW636, 1725 (3)-<7), 1851-1863,1003,2101,2301-2310. See alw UNIVKESimS AND COLLEOKS. HXQHWAT ENOINEBEINa EDUCATION, 2366. Hlldebrant, Edith L., 870. Hill, A. R., 1371 (1), 2312 (6). Hill,D.S.,1458. H1U,H.C., 1038(1). Hill, Helen F., 960. Hill, L.W., 2143. HIU, Patty 8., 1104 (6). HlUegas, M. B., 683 (12), 1072 (6),1198 (8). HaLEGAS 8CALB, 2347 (.xi). Hlllegeist, W. M., 2301 (11). Hills, E.G., 404. Hlnchman, F. K., 2066 (3). 68478 21—3 Hlnea,H.C.,1400. Hines,L.N., 601(1), 680. HlBkle,H.M.,1076. HiBTOBT, Frandi, teaching, 606; Hlspanlo-Amert- can, study, 44 (2); medieval, 48; socialised, 46; study, 254-256,458, 771,1305-1806; teachlng,40,444 (15),482,508 (l)-(2),505-«)6,f88 (5), (18),988(9), 968 (8), 1197 (1), 1221, 2066 (2)-<7), 227S-2270; la elementary schools, 46, 1199 (14); in secondary schools, 47, 687, 2277; teclB, 3010; United Btatea, teaching, 807 (27), 2065; world, 2376. HiSTOBT OF EDUCATION, 178^188, 445-447, 684-686, 040-041, 1200-1206, 1643-1546, 1727-1780, 197»-19VS» 2225. Hobdy,J. B.,896(2). H6ck»tt,H.C.,503(8). Hodgins, F. E.,423. HOper, Wilhelm, 730. Hoerle, Helen C. , 416. Hoesoh, Oskar, 1564. Hoftmvi,U. J., 1971 (13). Hoffmann, W. H. O., 1418 (9). Hoke, K. J., 3352. Holden,P. Q.,745(6). Holder,A.E.,1199(9). HoIley,C.E.,2126. Holllday , Carl, 569, 836. HoUlngworth, Leta 8., 42M, 1516. HoUis,Dann, 1817(1). HoUlS, I. N., 1163 (4), 3868. Holmes, C. W., 1913. Holmes, H. W., 1067. Holmes, Hilda M., 1338. Holmes, Margaret C, 3386. Holmes, P. K., 351, 603. Ho]singer,C. K., 1044. Holt, L. E., 117, 1886. Home dbmonstbation woek, 868 (6), 896 (8), (6). Home economics, 137-138, 881-383, 444 (8), 630, 896, 899 (6), (12H14), 901, 90^906, 1160 (8), 1882. (18), 1476-1476, 1542 (6). W76, 1677-1679, 192»-19a9, 2160- 2170; sodalixed, 383. Home peoject woek. See Homb dbmonshu." tion woek. Hood, Jack, ptetid., 957^ Hood, W. R., 1640. Hoopingamer, D. L., 1907 (21). Hoover, Herbert, 2343. Hopkins, E.M., 96. Hopkins, Habk. 572. Hopkinson, Alfred, 1331. Hopson, MUi A. B., 3194. Horn, Ernest, 747, 1278, 2017. Horn, P. W., 2321. Home, H. H., 841 (17a), 1751. Homer, B. L., 1025. Horton,A.V.,1679. Hoelc, J. F., 586, 1600, 3288 (1). Hotchkiss, W. £., 680 (1). Houston, F. H., 42, 1596. Howard, C. A., 561. Howard, Mary L., 2878. Howe, O.H., 2183. Howe, W. A., 1422. Howorth,l.W.,073. Hubertson, A. L., 287. Hudelson. Earl, 1762, 2072. 14 OURBENT BDUOATIOiarAL PUBLICATIONS — ^ISTDEX. Hudson,!. W., 1636. Haf&ngton, J. W., 418. Hughes, H. J., 1936. Hughes, J. L., 074. Hughes, R. M., 1101, 1725 <7). Hughes, W. H., 1875. Hulburt, R. a., 214i. Hullng, Caroline A., 1902, 2162. HuU,CaUie,2109. Humanistic EDUC4noN. 8u Classks; Libcrjll EDUCATION. Hunie,D.W.,1726(8). Huz^phreys, J. A., 1856. Humpstone, H. J., 21. Hunter, C.W., 2050. Hunter, F. M., 1625. Hunter, G. W., 1039. Hunter, Mary A., 590. Hurt, H. W., 1077. Hussander, A. F., 1882. Hutchlns, Margaret, 1960. Hutohins, W. J., 2308. Hutslnpillar, Jessie, 328. Hutton, H. L., 1294. Hyatt, T. P., 863. Hyde, E. P., 1197 (2). Hyde, Isabella, 1439. Hyde, Marietta, 1775. 'Htgiknb. See Health; School byqume and aANITATION. Ide, G. G., 157, 1244. XUinois state teachers' association, 1971. lUinois. University, 1575. Illinois. University. College of education. Bu* rean of educational research, 222l iLLiNoxs. UMivEBanr. Collbok or education. BTTESAU OV BDUCATIONAL BE8EARCH, 232. nilnois. UUvenity. High school conference, 807. iLurBBACT, 996, 1443; North Carolina, 1523; United States, 942. iMAOINAnOir, 981. Imboden, Sarah M., 2254. IKMIOBANT8, education, 1500, 1941, 1943. See aleo americanization. Immigration, 405. India, education, 201, 1555. Indiana. Department of public instruction, 1817* Indiana. State board of education, 2018. Indiana state normal school, Terre Haute, Ind., 2065. Indiana state teachers' association, 1194. Indiana. State teachers' training board, 2086. Indians, education, 951. Industrial arts, 1150(6): teaching, 487, 682 (6), 939(2). Industrial education, 618, 620, 623-624, 1160 (15>- (16), 1195 (6), 1451 (iv), 1453, 1455-1456, 1469, 14«1, 1463, 1726 (5), 1908, 1011, IMS, 191^1930, 1971 (8). See also Manual training; Profbssional bdu* cation; Trade schools; Vocational educa- tion. Industry and education. See Educahon and industry. Ingalese, Richard, 1754. IngeU, H. A., 2322. Institute for public service, New Yoi^, 2094. INTBLUOENCB TB8T8, 17, 18, 25, 289-280, 726, 738, 7S1-- 732, 734, 735, 738, 807 (10), 994, 996-997, 1257, 1333 (12). Su aUo Army dctbluobiigb tests; Edu« CATIONAL TB8T8. Interchuroh world movement. Bduoation d^ partment, 1485. Intercollegiate vocational guidance association, 1155. International oonferenoe of women physielans, 2140. International kindergarten union, 2268. Inter-racial council. N«tionaloonfM«noeoninimi-> gration, 2179. Iowa state teachers' assoelakicii, 1195. Iraixos, Antonia, 1202. Ireland, Merritte W., 648. Ireland, R. P., 299. Irion, T. W. H., 1832-1833. Irish, 8. B., 807 (16). Isaacs, Nathan, 630 (2). Ise, John, 535. Ittner, W. B., 866. J. Jackman, £. D., 2073. Jackscm, G. L., 288. Jackson, H. £., ed., 2178. Jacob, A. (Gertrude, 871. Jacob, Peyton, 1257. Jacoby, A. J., 614. Jamarik, Paul, 1196 (11). James, B. B., 2067. James, E. J., 2110. James, H. F., 807 (24). James, William, 1729. Jameson, J. F., 1102. Jameson, R. P., 756. Jamieson, C. E., 444 (16). Janitors, nil (2)-<3). Japan, education, 194. Jarach, L., 2187. Jardine, W. M., 769, 826. JarreU, C. C, 682 (2). Jelly, A. C, 657. Jena. UNnrERsrrY, 940. Jenkins, Elizabeth, 2341. Jensen, Evelyn H., 1150 (12). Jefnegan, M. W., 329. Jessup, W. A., 909, 1480 (5). JeweU, J. R., 205. Jews, education, 887. JUek, Annie L., 2255. Johansen, Fannie O., 1581. John, W. C, 97. Johnson, A. Grace, 1676. Johnson, A. Le R., 1887. Johnson, Buford, 1258, 2368 (3). Johnson, Burges, 2309. Johnson, E. C, 899 (10), 1686. Johnson, (Gertrude E., 665, 751, 1199 (15).. Johnson, L. A., 761. Johnson, Mamie T., 1818. Johnson, Marietta L., 1541 (2). Johnson, W. E., 1763. Johnson, W. F., 152. Johnston, R. B., 380. Jones, A. J., 658, 1065 (6). COHBEKT BDUCATIOKAI. PXJBLIOATIONS — ^INDEX. 15 Jones, A. h., 443 (3). Jonas, C. T., 1S8. JoQQS, H. A., 953. Jones,J.W., 1098(3). Janes, Mabel K., 1961. Jones, Olive M., 1078. Jones, R. O., 189. Jones, T. J., 1950. Jordan, A. M., 3011. Jordan, O. O., 118. Jordan, Riveida H., 2294. Jordan, W. H., 899 (3). Journalism, high schools, 1016; InstraotloD in, 84, 2087. Joj> Florence L., 1014. Jadd, C. H., 688 (1), 807 (9), 1002 (3), 1116, 1190 (3), 1400 (1), 1401, 1542 (1), (4), 1834. JuinOB COLLEGKS, 92, 315, 569, 1094 (1),(9), 1874, 1867. JUNIOK moB SCHOOLS, 546, 996 (8>-(9), 1Q63> 1833, 1341, 1345, 1611, 1725 (11),)^070-2077; stody tests, 543. Jostioe, W. A., 483. JUYXKILE DBLINQUENCT, 984, 1518. Kahlenberg, Louis, 841 (5). Kallom, A. W., 730, 993. Kandel, I. L., 1217. Kansas, edocatioQ, 327. Kantor, J. R., 994. Koto, Katsuji, 2323. Kavana, Rose M., 2084. Kay, O. F., 1725 (5). Keene, H. S., 1128. Kefiaaver, Christine R., 1486. Kefiuiver, H. J., 2247 (11). Keith, J. A. H., 2127. KeDey, T. L., 1250. KeUogg, V. L., 1626, 2312 (5). Kellogg, W. O., 1288. Kelly, F. J., 407, 854, 1813, 2160, 2283 (4). Keny, R. W., 2168. Kempner, Aubrey J., 2095. Kendan, C. N., 2006. Kennedy, Fronde, 1523. Kennedy, J. B., 663. Kennedy, Joseph, 1340, 1904. Kent, R. A., 1627, 18|0, 2326. BlEMT SCHOOL, KENT, CONN., 542. Kentneky educational association, 986. Kenyon, S. L., 159. Kenyon, F. G., 105. Kephart, A. P., 2074. Keppel, F. P., 919. Kerr, James, 344, 719, 861. Kies, P. P., 621. Kilpatrlck, W. H., 484, 683 (fi), 1198 (3), 2140 (8). Kimball, Ererett, 639. Kimble, Virginia K., 1418 (7). KXNDEBOABTBN, 64-66, 272>374, 529, 532, 644, 647, 797-798, 1049-1053, 1194 (6), 1323, 1598, 1000-1601, 2062-2063, 2283, 2285-2286. King, H. A. L., 802. Kingsley, C. D., 1825 (2), 1907 (18). Kingsley, Maud E., 1789, 2278. Kinkade, Arthur, 1415. Kinnaman, J. O., 8. Kinney, E. J., 936 (13). Klnzle. Ck>ra E., 1963. Kirk, J. R., 804 (7). Kirkpatriek, E.A.,981. Kirkpatrick, T. B., 1433. Kitson, H. D., 376. Kittredge, H. C, 3075. Klapper, Paul, 841. Klein, Henry, 1042 (4). Klein, P. B., 1450. Klemme, B. J., 1958. Klock, Augustus, 1847 (4). Kn^p, O. B., 533. Knapp, T. J., 330. Knight, E. W., 4, 69, 181, 446, 1069, Knight, Ella B., 359. Knight, H. R., 1434. Knight, W. O., 135. Knowles, F. H., 1460. Koch, F. H., 1893. Koch, T.W., 431. Koek, H. E., 563, 837. Koooorek, Albert, 1161 (4), 1481 (5) Koenig, Eduard, 888. Kohl, CO., 508 (3). Kohs, 8. C, 1964. Kolbe,P.R.,1094(6). Kolmer, J. A., 1487. Koons, Carrie E., 1198 (5). Koons, O. L., 1971 (10). Koonis, L. K., 1178 (1). Koos, F. H., 1360. Koos, L. v., 336, 1341, 1377,3076. Kramer, F. H., 1681. Krause, A. C, 135. Krauss, P. H., 2111. Krebs, H. C, 2352. Krehbiel, Edward, 841 (12^). Kuhlman, A. F., 3333. Kunou, C. A., 893. KuDxe, B. J., 1163 (13). La Chard, Thdrtee, 1677. Lackey, £. E., 2275. Lacy, J. v., 236. Laing, O.J.,1204. Laird, D. A., 982. LaJpatRai,l565. Lambley, Kathleen, 1975. Lampson, L. V., 828. IiANCAOTKBIAN STSTIBlf IN THE UNITED STATES, 183. Lance, Jack, 1402. Landc^f,G.£., 1966. Landis, Maude E., 1482 (4). Landsittel, F. C, 1847. Lane, F. K., 86. Lane, W. D., 1211. Lane^laypon, Janet E., 2344. Lange, A. F., 1867. Lanouaoks, modem, 403-497; in high schools, 1020, study, 755, 767, 750, 1022, 2045; teaching, 249-260; 497, 756, 968, 1236 (4), 1294-1206, 1297, 2044, 2268- 2271; tests, 474, 1023. See aUo name of language. Langworthy, V. B., 620. Lanier, H. W., 408. 16 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS — INDEX. Lansing, Marlon F., 905. Lape, Esther E., 2188. Lapie, Faol, 77. Laprade, W. T., 506. Larkln, Mary J. M., 1776. La Rue, D. W., 1245. Lashley, K. 8., 2145. Laski, H. J., 842. Lathrop, Edith A., 1607-1606, 2288. Laiin lanouaqk, 1024, 1332 (10); study, 268; teadi- Ing, 40»-600, 760, 762, 764, 939 (11), 1025-1026, 1228, 1277, 1302, 1793, 2011; in Junior high schools. 761, 766; tests, 1001. Law, study, 907,1161, 1163 (3), 14S1, 2350; teaching, 630(2). Lawe, C. D.,800. Lawler, Elsie M., 1482 (2). Lay, EUzabeth A., 1892. Layton, W. K., 1126. League or nations, 1733. Leathes, Stanley, 757. LeaveU, R. H., 1142. Leavitt, R. G., 790. Leoky, Prescott, 1602. Lee, E. A., 1332 (2). Lee, R. I., 2334. LxE COUNTY, Qa., survey, 2230. Leete, J. H., 683 (21). LEnVHANDEDNXSS. See Am BIDEXTBRITr. Leger, Louis, 847, Legge, R. T., 1423. Legislation, 105, 325, 448, 593, 1114, 1396; England, 960; Ontario, 444 (2). Lehn, H. M. B., 1196 (6). Leighton, Etta V., 1497. Leighton, J. A., 2112, 2310. Leisy, E. E., 1015. Lemon, Ada T., 682 (3). Lemon, H. B., 731, 841 (6). Lenney, Teresa M., 527. Lents, Bernard, 1541 (3). Lenx, F. B., 8. Leo, Brother, 480. Leonard, E. A., 1246. Leonard, S. A., 1281, 1825 (9). Lepaulle, Pierre, 1274. Lesh, W. S., 1727. Lester, Katherlne M., 1150 (9). Leuschner, E. O., 1163 (10). Levesque, D., 1991. Levtn, Samuel, 1197 (1). Leyltas, Arnold, 425. Lewis, A. E., 2197. Lewis, B. R., 2039. Lewis, H. C, 536. Lewis, Ida B., 654. Lewis, jr. C, 2184. Lewis, O. F., 659. Lewis, S. R., 1129. Lewis, W. D., 1825 (1). Lewis, W. M., 795. Libby, O. a., 98. LiBBBAL education, 210, 501-502, 1098, 1505. LIBBABIBS, 938 (22) , 949, 1196 (4); high schools, 429(2)' 432, 667, 1188, 1712; Junior high schools, 430; pub- Uc, 683(21); school, 1223, 1726(14); universities and colleges, 1708. LmSABlBs AND BBADINO, 165, 429-435, 665, 920-963, 1188-1189, 1526-1533, 1707-1713, 1960, 2206-8210, 2372-2378. LiBBAST T&AlNmo, 429 (3), (5)-(6). Lincoln, Abraham, 435. Llnoc^, E. A., 732, 2012. Lindeman, E. C, 1602 (4). Lindqulst, Theodora, 779-780, 1794. Linke, E. A., 1007. Linke,J.A.,936 (3). I^inthlcnm, L. W., 2247 (zii). LdnvlUe, H. R., 850. Lip-reading, 1183. lippitt, Florence P., 2063 (4)-(5). Ltteratube, 1588-01, 1788, 1790, 2286; ooUege, 1286, 1789; study, 33; teaching, 240-242, 489, 1012, 1018. 1284. Littell, Sara L., 2068 (2)-(3). Livingston, B. E., 574. Lobeck, A. K., 51. Lockhart, O. L., 281. Lockhart, J. C, 554. Lockridge, R. F., 1913. Lodge, (3onsaIeE, 1303. Lodor, Elmhra, 1524. Loeb, Josephine, 273. Logic, examinations, 995. Londow, E. J., 1461. Long, Alice B., 1710. Long, J. S., 1697 (5). Loomis, A. K., 854. Loomis, Alice M., 899 (14). Loomis, H. B., 1825 (4). Lory, C. A., 809 (2). Lott, H. C, 1197 (5). Loudun, Berry, pffud., 600. Louisiana, education, 943. Lovejoy, A. O., 91, 1631 (2). Lovejoy, O. R., 881. Lovett, E. O., 1726 (7). Lowden, F. O., 1194 (1). Lowell, A. L., 843, 2113, 2241. Lowell, Frances E., 1261. Lowery, J. O., 1079. Lowry, Ellsworth, 733. Lowth, F. J., 640. Lucas, W. P., 1418 (1). Luckey, G. W. A., 1247, 1733. Lukenbill, E. H., 1971 (4). Lull, H.O., 486(1), 1777. Lusuriaga, Lorenso, 196. Lyford, Carrie A., 1180. Lyman, R. L., 71, 546, 1782. Lynde, L. £., 1308. Lyon, L. S., 58, 384, 1914. Lys, F. J., 701. Lytle, E. B., 781. M. Mabie, E.G., 525(1). MacAdam, (George, 1361, 1609. McAloney, T. S., 2368 (9). McAndrew, William, 72, 945. MacArthur, C. Q., 1796. MacBain, Jeannie M., 523. McBrien, J. L., 801 (4). McCall, W. A., 2140 (7). OURBBNT EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS — INDEX. 17 McCaakey, J. P., U\, 1196 (18). Headland, WUliam, 1263. Hcaenahan, P. E., 1105 (2). Madeod, Annie L., 1275. McCloskey, A., 1150. McCloy, C. H., 237. McClung, Frank, 683 (9). licClusky, F. D., 1728. McConathy, Osbounie, 1816 (1), 1071 (14).- McConau^y, J. L., 1103, 1362, 1725 (4). McCann, C. M., 2301 (5). ICcConndl, J. M., 300, 1364 (3). McConneU, W. R., 511. McConneU, W. W., 2066 (1). KeCarmack, T. J., 1825 (7). McCornack, W. R., 1111 (8). McCoy, C. H., 126. Jf acCracken, J. H., 2311. HcCrae, Lee, 2108. McCrea, N. O., 1026. McCrea, R. C, 385, 1478 (2). McCready, S. B., 587. McCunock, O. L., 1197 (3). McCordy, J. H., 866(3), 1131. McCutchan, R. O., 708 (7). McDanlel, M. R., 113, 1825 (10). McDermott, Cbarles, 1416. HacDonald, B. J., 373. Kaodonald, Mitt H. S. 0., 444 (0). McDoDough, Julia G., 402. licFarland, R. L., 036 (1). McGaw,J.S.,1194(ll). MeGeodi, J. A., 215. McOm, Nettie, 1108 (14). Hclntoeb, Charles, 803. Hackay, (instance D. A., 1130, 1803. McE^ay, Cora P., 1332 (8). McKee, Mabel F., 2036. McKeever, W. A., 1752. Maekie, R. A., 547. KcKinley, A. P., 762. HcKInney, James, 1150 (15), 1871 (8), 234^. MacUntoeb, O. L., 1725 (10). MacLean, O. £., 050. McLean, Maijorte, 1511. MacLean, R. B., 2097. Madeod, Annie L., 1586. McLoaghUn, C. L., 1608 (6). MoManavay, H. M., 2868 (3). McMillan, M. Helena, 1482 (11). MacMiirdiy, Hden, 182 (3). McMnrray, O. K., 310, 1161 (2), 1481 (3). McMurry, C. A., 28. M^Murtile, D. C, 411, 1044. MacNeill, J. O. S., 1970. MeNlcdi, W. R., 455. MePberson, William, 786. Mactavish, J. M., 708. MoVea, Emille W., 1002 (5), 1047. McVey, F. L., 1104, 1363. MagiU, H. 8., 820, 1104 (10), 2128. Magnus; Philip, 301. Magrader, W. T., 1163 (6). Mahonky, James, 1203. MaUand, Carl, 1185. Mallary, B. E., 1660. Man, Henry de, 1556. Manchester, A. L., 703 (3). Manchester, O. L., ZH, 1071 (11). MANCaKSTER OBAMMAB SCBOOL, 182. Mangold, O. B., 600. Mann, C. R., 1504, 2120. Mansbridge, Albert, 2204. Manson, O. E.,2247(xti). Manual ▲bts, teaching, 683 (4). MAiruAL TRAlNlNa, 134-135, 369-370, 373-374, 617- 624, 801-897, 1150-1154, 1453, 1456, 14(60, 1466, 1470- 1471, 1667-1670, 2347-2340. Sa alto Industrial education; Vocational education. Manuel, H. T., 1080. Maphis, C. G., 1002 (1). Marberry, J. O., 807 (18). Maroh, P. C, 1173 (2). Mardi,T.S.,683(15). Marcus, Lawrence, 1024. The Mabia Hosmeb Pbnnikan Memorial li- BRAR7 OF education, 1528. Matin, Anne L., 024. Mabxino. 8tt Gbadino; Promotion of pufils. Marlatt, Abby L., 800 (12). Marquette, Bleedcer, 1805. Marsh, E. O., 1117. Marsh, J. A., 1342. Marshall, John, 1205. Marshall, L. C, 630 (3). Marston, Anson, 1163 (14). MabtX, Jos£, 1202. . Martin, A. S., 332. Martin, E. G., 1034. Martin, Gertrude E., 2261. Martin, Lillien J., 1000. Maryhind. . State department of education, 136. Maryland state teadiers' association, 1106. Mason, Michael, 1284. MAflSAGHUBETTS. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, 588. Massachusetts. Department of education. Di- vision of dementary and secondary education and normal sdiools, 1820. Massee, W. W., 810. Mathematics, study, 55, 2047-2048; teaching, 514, 628, 777, 781, 038 (15), 1308-1300, 1311, 1506, 2272; in Junior high schooU, 770-780, 1031, 1704, 2046; in high schools, 1032; in secondary schools, 20, 030 (6); textbooks, 56. Mather, F. J. Jr., 1858. Mathews, B. J., 2301 (6). Mauren, Signe, 2151. Maxfldd, F. N., 160. Maxwell, C. £., 587. Maxwell, C. R., 477. Maxwdl, G. E., 817, 1004 (2). Maxwdl, P. A., 1263. May, M. A., 006. Maynard, Gertrude, 524, 2286. Mayo, M. J., 1322. Mead, A. R., 1835. Mead, C. D., 224, 720. Meeker, H. H., 715. Mecklin, J. M., 1143. Medical education, 387-380, 303, 631, 008-910, 1164- 1165, 1480, 1484, 1487-1488. Medical inspection of schools, 116, 341. 18 OURKBNT EDUOATIOKAL PUBLICATIONS — ^INDBX. Ifeek, C. 8., 172S (10). Meier, W. H. D., 1907 (6). Meikeljohn, Alexander, im (4). Melcher, Frederick, 1196 (4). Helvin, A. G., HI. Heneclier, Jorge, 1742. Menge, £. J., 1860. Menner, R. J., 650. Mental HToniiE, 037 (5), 979, 982, 996. Mental tests. See EDircATiONAi. tests; Intelu- GBNCE TESTS. Meredith, A. B., 811, 1020, 1343. Meredith, Florence L., 1424, 1663. Meredith college, Raleigh, N. C, 76a. Meriam, J. L., 975. Merino y Salaxar, Teresa, 14 Merriam, J. C, 1110, 2120 Merri]l,A.O., 1238(4). Merrill, John, 1199 (11). Merrill, Maod A., 22. Menitt, E. H., 981. Merton, Elda, 1279. Metcaif, J. C, 946. MetK, J. J., 1425. Meyer, E., 1228. Meyer, H. H., 1906. Meyer, Wallace, 1520. Meyerholz, C. H., 1195 (7). Meses, S. £., 841 (2). Michigan schoolmasters' dub, 1197. ^fiddle west society of physical educatioQ and hygiene, 2146. Miessner, W. O., 1316 (7). Milan, C. H., 932. MUes, H. £., 621, 1734. MILITABT tBAlNiNO, 149, 407-468, 648, 1168 (7), 1172; in mdyersttles «nd colleges, 1871 (6>-(6). Millar, R. W., 1481 (4). Miller, Alee, 804. Maier, C. F., 1971 (16). Miller, O.H., 708 (10). Miller, G. R., 041, 1628. MiUer, E. A., 1344. Miller, F. J., 1199 (19). Miller, 0. A., Ml (8). Miller, O. J., 260. MiUer,P.K.,154l(5). Miller, R. R., 1161 (3). Miller, W. O., 2313. Miller countt, Qa., survey, 2230. Milligan, R. M., 340, 1640. Minikan,R.A.,517. Mills, Margaret, 1332 (13). Millspaagh, J. F., 716. Mims, Edwin, 1726 (4). Minnesota. Department of education, 1081 . Minnesota. University, 1378. Minnesota. University. SaTyeyeommissioD,2314. Minor, Ruby, 238, 486 (3). Minor, Van Lieu, 770. Mississippi teachers' association, 937. MissouEi Childeen's code OOHHISaiON, 660. Mitchell, David, 468 (1), 1132. MitcheU,H.H.,1897(5). MitcheU,L.H.,1347(2). Mitchell, U. O., 570. Mock, H.E., 2164. Modem language association of America, 1297, 2271. MODKBN LANOUAQES. Sm Lamovaobs, iDOdem. Moehlman, A. B., 1365, 1869. Moffett, Mary L., 1821. Mohr, Wilhelmina, 1298. Mongold, W. C, 1195 (9). Monroe, Paul, 1196 (1). Monroe, W. S., 225, 1750. Montana, eduoatton, 1739. Montgomery, W. A., 168, 174, 1216. Montyne, £. Y., 1896. Moore, Annie C, 666. Moore, H. C, 812. Moore, R. L., 1971 (5). Moore,W.F.,444(7). Moral bovcation, 183, 866-867, 607-606, 88i-888» 938 (8), 1146, 1199 (2), 1147, 1662, 2140 (10), 234»^ 2346. Morgan, Agnes F., 1678. Morgan, O. E., 2242. Morgan, J. P., 1068. Morgan, J. E., 432. Morison, S. E., 1205. Moroney, T. B., 2101. Morris, J. V. L., 1462, 1815. Morrison, H. C, 78, 588, 796, 807 (4), 1725 (9). Morrison, J. S., 927. Morrison, Katherine, 486 (4). Morrow, F. J., 899 (1), 1163 (7), 1371 (S). Moses, M. J., 1530. Moulton, H. F., 960. Mounce, Oeorge, 1797. Moving pictures, 485; edueatlonal use, 2S6, 741,. 743, 745, 1011, 1273, 1275, 1278. Sm dlto VvsUkL, INflTRUCnON. Mudge, E. L., 1888. MuUer, J. A., 9. Multer, W. J., 1133. Mumford, A. A., 182. Munn,F.J.,444(12). Munroe, J. P., 206. Murchuson, Carl, 1264. Murdoch, Katharine, 478. Murphy, Maydeli, 2264. Murray, E. R., 1049. Murray, Elsie, 32, 1473. Museums, educational use, 45. MUSIC, 520, 1043, 1316, 1318, 1971 (14); applied, 267;: appreciation, 1317 (6), 1318; oommonlty, 798 (11), 1316 (0); instrumental, 1316 (3)>(4), 1817 (4); pubUc schools, 2B6, 1044, 2281; sdiool credit, 793 (10), 1316 (3); standardizattoa, 703 (4), 1316 (3); study, 622, 2067; supervisor, 1316 (5)-<6), (9),, 1317 (2)-<3); teaching, 265-266, 521, 628, 793 (1H3), (6), 794, 938 (3), 1316 (8), (10); In high schools, 807 (19), 1317 (8); In kiadcrgartsiis, 524; in rural schools, 1317 (7). Music supervisors' national eonlerenoe, 1816-1S17. Music teachers' national association, 793. Mutch, W. J., 591. Muttkowski, R. A., 412. Myers, C. £.,333,1267. Myers, Q. C, 1764-1766, 1945, 2013. Myers, O. E., 1463. N. Nagle, J. C, 899 (11). Nalder,F.F., 028, 2025. Nason, W. C, 606. CUBRBirr BDUCATIONAl, PUBLICATIONS — ^INDEX. 19 National Amaricanizatioin oonferenoe, Washington, D. C, 406. National assodatioii for the study and educatioci oC exeeptlofial children, 419. National association of corporation schools, 1664. National association of dental Cacaltles, 1162. National anodatiGn of school accoanting and busi- ness officials of public schools, 1111. National association of secondary school principals, 1825. National association of secondary school principals. Committee on social studies in the high school, 913. NatSonal association of state universities in the United States of America, 1371. National association of teadiers oi speech, 525. National Catholic war council. Comjnittee on spedal war activities, 1987. National chOd labor committee, 1897. National civic federation. Augusta (Me.) branch, 1985. National cciUegiate.athletic as80c4ition, 866-867. National committee for chamber of commerce cooperation with the public schools and the American dty bureau, 1848. National conference oommittee on standards of colleges and secondary schools, 1003. National conference on AjnericanizatioQ in indus- tries, 917. National conference on character education In rela- tion to Canadian citizenship, 132. National conference on rural school consolidatian, 1324. National conobess of mothsb0 and fakent- tiacrxr assooationa, 363 (1), 364. National council of presidents of normal schools. Committee on surveys and standards, 817. National country life conference, 1602. National education association, 1398. National education association. National council of education, 104. Natio|^ education association. National council ofeducation. Cammltteeon thrift education, 2060. National federation of modern language teachers, 2271. National league of nursing education, 1482. National society for the study «f education, 968. National society for vocational education, 14&1. National vocational guidance association, 626. SATVKKrsnnrr; S19, 968 (ii), 1042, 15S0. Neale, M. 0., 947. NBOBOE8, education, 418, 1180, 1509, 1695-1696, 1949-1960, 2191. Nelles, F. C, 1516. Nelson, C. F., 320. Neumann, Henry, 841 (15). Neumann, Julie W., 2338 (4). Newcomb, C. M., 1046. New England assodaticn of coilegea and secondary schools, 443. New Hampshire. State board of edufiatkm, 106. Newlon, J. H., 1212. New SCHOOL, 463. New York (City) Board ofeducation, 1735. New York (City) Board of education. Bureau of ref^ence, research, and statistics, 1068. New York (CSity) Department of education. Bu« reau of attendance. 2136. New York (Cmr), education, 1736, New York state modem language association, 249. New York (State) University, 601-692. New York (State) UNivEBarrr, 1379, 1930. New York (State) University. Educational con- gress, 1724. Newark, N.J. Board of education. Conunltteaon instruction and educational sui^idies, 1767. Newspapers, high school, 1792. Nichols, Andrew, 2052. Nichols, F. O., 805. Nichols, H.W., 374. Nltohie, Elisabeth H., 1953. Nitse, W. A., 841 (21). Noble, E. L., 479. Noo, J. T. C, 936 (6). Nolan, Ona L., 2152. Noland, Alice O., 1816. Nonnes, Alflred, 2269. Normal schools, 75, 289-298, S98» 682 (8>-(9), 1068. 1070, 1349-1354, 2083-2091; Franoe, 77; Oregon, 1544; rural teacher preparation, 550. See ulao Teachers, training. Norman, H. W., 2258. Norris, J. Anna, 2140 (1). North CaroUpa. State educational oomminion, 2234. North central association of colleges and secondary schools, 1094, 1345, 1726. Norton, 2iT9. J. C, 1144i Nova Scotia, education, 711. Noyes, Hilda H., 914. NQchter, F., 1657. Nunn, T. P., 721, 2243. NiTRSES, 1682; shortage, 391; training, 388, 302, 1482, 1489, 1493-1493, 2367. 8m aUo SCHOOL NURSE. Nusbaum, Louis, 2371. Nutrition, school children, 1132, 1134, 1421, 1426, 1655,2332. Nutt,H.W.,1408. o. Oberholtser, E. P., 485. O'Brien, Qeorge, 1977. Odum, H. W., 3189. Ohio. Department of publicinstruotion, 588, 2077. Ohio history teachers' association, 254, 503. Oliver, Sir Sydney, 199. Olmstead, E. J., 127. Olmsted, F. L., 1435. Ontario. Education dq;>artment, 1069* Ontario educational association, 444. Open air schools, 2140 (7). Oral hygiene. Su Dental htoibnb. Orbison, Inez., 503 (1). Orchestra, school, 57, 1044. Orme, Mrs. Hence, 036 (2). Osborne, C. A., 161. Osborne, O.M., 555. Osborne, R. W., 1236 (3). Osbum,W.J.,1082. Oschmann, Dr., 1474. O'Shea, M. V.^5, 350,1083, 1248,1361, 1444,1563,1567. Osias, Camilo, 2349. Oskar, 1480 (6). Osier, Sir William, 1304. Otto, W.N. ,1932. Overstreet, H. A., 564. 20 CURRENT EDUCATIONAl, PUBLICATIONS — ^INDEX. Owen, Dorothy T., 1389. Owen, E.C.E., 961. Owen, W. B., 1150 (2). OxroBD. Univemity, 701. P. Packer, P. C, 217. Paetow, L. J., 764, 1105, 1332 (10). Paoeamts, 2259. Paidoloqt, 718. Paine, Jessie, 603. Painter, O. S., 55. Palmer, O. H., 1729. Palmer, G.L., 2247 (iv). Palmer, G.T., 1971 (3). Palmer, Stella, 896 (3). Pan American union, 712. Papp, J. P., 1478 (4). PABEITT-TKACHEB A9SOCIATIOK8, 363 (1H3), (7), 1144, 1198 (4), 1971 (18). Park, Julian, 1380,2114. Parker, A. C, 1907 (11). Parker, D. R., 106. Parker, I. V., 976. Parker, S. C, 608, 813, 1227, 1755, 2256. Parklns,A. E., 776. • Parkinson, W. D., 6. Parmdee, E. W., 73. Pamall, C. O., 1489. Parry, A. W., 1978. Parsons, E. D., 74. Parttow, W. D., 1186. Part^ihe education. See Coofebative system or EDUCATION. Partridge, O. £., 207. Paton, Stewart, 208, 977, 1659. PatrV Angelo, 462, 660, 603, 1187, 1445, 1541 (6), 1645, 1766. Patei, Akoelo, 23. Patten, William, 263. Patterson, Alice J., 1160. . Patterson, Herbert, 1365. Patterson, S. W., 1016. Pattison,H. A.,377. Paul, H. Q., 1017. Payne, A. F., 627, 1670, 1957. Payne, E. G., 59, 209-270, 1047, 1810, 2282. Payne, W. A., 2301 (7). Pearoe, H. J., 682 (7). Pearse,C.G.,2088. Pearson, F. B., 802. Pearson, P. H., 173, 1517. Pearson, T. M., 2078. Pedaoooics. See Teachino. Peers, E. \., 768. Pell, E. L., 1449. Pence, R. W., 1631. Pendleton, C. S., 744, 1008. PEmfANsaiP. SeeYrmrtSQ. Pennlman, J. H., 1189. Pennsylvania. Department of public instruction, 938. PENNSTLYAinA, eduoatiou, 1546. Pennsylvania. Educational congress, 1 77. Pennsylvania state educational association, 683, 1198. Perkins, G.O., 2137. Perry, C. A., 1146, 14S6. Perry, Frances M., 37. Peters, C. C, 1810. Peters, R. F., 1064, 1649. Peterson, E. O., 899 (8). Peterson, Frederick, 1490, 2140 (6). Pettijohn, J. J., 304. Pettit,W.W.,2079. Petzoldt, Joseph, 1230. Phelps, Ruth 8., 1021. Philadelphia, public sdiools, 188. PUUpp, E. L., 1199 (1). PhiUps,W.L.,1198(4). Phillips, D.E., 2153. PhilUps,F.M.,326. PhilUps, H. D., 866 (2). Phillips, J. D., 841 (26). Phillips, R.LeC, 1178. PhiUips, Robert, 915. Phillips, T. D., 1315. Philosophy, teaching, 1230. Phoutrides, A. E., 1743. Physical examination, 1420. Physical tbaininq, 122>126, 347-352, 863 (4), 601- 604, 6S2 (3), (10), 683 (6), 865-«71, 949, 1092 (4), 1136-1138, 1196 (6), 1198 (13), 142^1433, 1726 (IS), 1889-1890, 2146-2148, 2333-2335; academic credits, 351; Great Britain, 1656; teaching, 601. Physics, 1197 (2); teaching, 518, 939 (7); tests, 731. Physiolooy, 1652; teaching, 2331. Picavet, Francois, 2239. Pickell, F. O., 1094 (8), 1687, 1725 (1). Pleper, C. J., 1040. Pierce, E. B., 2301 (16). Pilcher, R. B., 1166. Pilsworth, E. 8., 1809. Plntner, Rudolph, 734, 1768,2014. Pittenger, B. F., 1410. Pittsburgh teachers association, Pittsburgh, Pa., 305. Place, Sara B., 1418 (6). Plants, Samud, 889. • Platoon schools, 689, 1404. Piatt, F. J., 1769. Piatt, R.H., jr., 1702. Play and playqbounds, 872-874, 1139, 1434-1487, 1657-1658, 1891-1891, 2149-2150, 2336-2338. Poindexter, Miles, 99. Pollakoff, Vladimir, 1558. Pollard, A. F., 2121 Pollock, C. A., 787. PoUock, John, 1218. Ponsonby, Arthur, 199. Poole, Gladys B., 1237. Pope,A.E., 1697.(8). . Porter, R. N., 933. Porter, W. T., 2246. Porterfleld, A. W., 2266. Poriwus, S. D., 989 (i)-(il)» 2248. Poull, Louise E., 661. Poulson, M. W., 667. Found, Olivia, 128. Pound, RoBCOe, 2312 (3). Potter, Captain, 1725 (8). Potter, Claudia, 2368 (6). Powell, L. P., 3. Powell, Louise M., 684. CURRKNT KOrCATTONAL TUBLICATIOXS — INDEX. 21 Pratt, W.S., 798(2). -Prentice, W. K., 841 (20). Prentis,H. W.,321. Pressey, Luella W., 735, 1770. Pressey, S. L., 996-998, 1286, 2250. Preston, A. W., 1916. Preston, Josephine C, 360, 948, 2067. Price, O. V., 47, 1307. Price, Helen L., 1332 (3). Price, R.R.,S30. Priccr, J. L., 807 (6), (13). PRIMABY EDT7CAT10K, 530-^2, 1590, 2284. Principals, 1407, 1411; elementary schools, 109. Printino, teaching, 1466; in high .^^chool, 896. Pritchett, H. S., 2315. Private schools, 285, 810, 816, 1335. Proctor, W. M., 736, 990, 1332 (12), 1925. . Professional EDUCATION, 140-146, 63i-63:>, 904)-9io, 1161-1166, 14«>-1494, 2173-2176, 23*)6-23.')9. Progressive education association, 1541 . Project method, 28-30, 237-239, 482, 481, 486-487, 742, 939 (8), 1032, 1196 (3), 1196(5), 1197(1), 1198(3), 1236 (1), 1270-1272, 1276, 1332 (8), 158l-ir)8f, 1772- 1779, 2016-2021, 2254-2256. Prokosch, E., 841 (22). Promotion or pupils, 939 (0), 112C. See aho Gradino. Prosser, C. A., 1194 (3). Psychiatric cunic. 2aH. PSYCHIATRT, 662, 141S f4). Psychoanalysis, 1177. Psychological te.sts, 2:il , 443 d ), (3), <)99, 1 193 ( i ), 1429(1), 1506, 1923, 1025. •Psychology, 464, 1197 (5), 124.i: uppliwi, lOW: ex- aminations, 995; study, 13.54, IS03; toiuhing, 1029. See aUo Educational psyctiology. Public schools, Cleveland, 189; (Jreat Britain, 199, 956-968, 962, 1741; Rifle, Col., 449; social work, 062; United States, 3, 184, 192, 450, 9i)2. Public speaking, 1046; high sr-hools, 58. Puffer, R. A., 2295. Pnrcell, Helen E., 1029. Putin, C. M., 1022. Putnam, Mary B., 1366. Pyle, W. H., 1367. Queen, Hallie £., 1986. Quiller-Couch, Arthur, 2209. Quimby, George, 1941. Quinn, M. D., 694. Rader, S. W., 1522 (6). Radice, Sheila, 1601. Rafter, A. L., 531. Ralston, Ruth, 997. Ramsdell, C. H., 857. RandaU, H. J., 2176. Randall, J. L., 791. Randolph, Harold, 793 (1). Ransome, Josephine, 703. Rapeer, L. W., 346, 539, 2068. Rapp, £. M., 1198 (5). Rathbun, F. E., 2247 (x). Ray, Annie, 1060. Reading, 488, 968 (l)-(3), 993, 1332 (9), 17S5; ability, 1542 (10); college students, 968 (5); elementary grades, 746; sUeut, 747, 17S2, 1783; teaching, 31, 1279-1283, l.)87, 1782, 1784, 3027-2029; testd, 22, 320. 968 (4), 2247 (vil). Ste aho I>irr.\p.iks kht} i reading. Reamer, Jeannotte, 2014. Reber, L. E., 899 (9). Reqtation, socialized, 744, UVK-uxw. Recreation centers. See Commcmtv ckvters. Schools as soclal centeu.s. Redway, J. W., 119. Reed, A. A., 1094(3). Reed, Anna Y., 628, 2165. i Reed, P. E., 896. Kerd college, 1376. Recs, R. I., 836(4). Rocs, Robert, 2140 (10). Reeve, W. 1)., 56, 1506. Reeves, J. W., 525 (5). Reformatory education, 92**. Reh-vbilitation, 1332 (4), (11). Reid, Eliia P., 1482 (9). Reil, Minnie, 378. Religious EDUCAnoN, 133, 368, 609-616, 884-^90, 1147-1149, 144»-n50, 1486, 1I>«>2-1663, 1003-1906. 2082, 2157-2161. Ronauld, ^rnile, 765. Roplogle, F. H., 1137, 1198 (13) Repton, 445 f3). Research, erlucational, 217, 'IVIV, govern mental, 1S64. Research, sciontillc. See Scientific p-eseaech. Reserve ofhcers tr.unino corps, 899 (i). Retardation. See Backward cniLDRr.N; Pro- motion OF PUPILS. Rcvillc, T. C, 851. Re>niold.s, G. E., 1790. Rhees, Rush, 400, 2115. Rhodes .sciiolarsuips, 1096, 121.'.. Rice, Anno L., 1594. Rice. Edith F., 43. Rice, Frances V., 2210. Rice, O. S., 2377. Rice, Wallace, 2210. Rich, F. M.,29,306. Rich, Katherine B., 2332. Richards, A. A., 1852. Richards, 0. R., 1907 (20). Richards, E. B., 752, 1590. Richards, E. L., 983. Richardson, Anna E., 1476. Richardson, B. C, 2080. Richardson, J. W., 1267. Richardson, R. K., 4«. Richeson, J. J., 87. Rickcord, R. V., 1464, 1917. Rigdon, Jonathan, 2316. Riggs, J. G., 818. Rinehart, H. L., 2247 (xi). Ringwalt, R. C, 1860. Ripman, Walter, 1023. Risley, J. H.,2061. Rltter, R. H., 1918. Roach, Charles, 745 (1), 1010. Roberts, R. S., 1506. Robertson, Elizabeth W., 1150 (13). 22 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL PUBLU^ATIONS — INDEX. Robertson, J. D., 897. Robertson, J. W., 132 (4). Robertson, Lionel, 1150 (7). Robinson, F. B., 841 (28). Robinson, O. C, 1480 (7). Rodkey, Edith, 2036. Roe, Annabel C, 2378. Roe, W. C, 426. Roemer, Joseph, 1310. Rogers, Agnes L., 1568, 1771. Rogers, P. C, Jr. ,2292. Romano, Pietro, 1440. Ronau, Bertha M., 1836. Root, R. K., 190. Root, Rosamond, 804 (5). Rorem, 8. O., 814, 1127. Rorer, J. T., 2185. Rorty, James, 391. Rosa, E. B., 1389. Rosenbury, F. L., 119i> (5). Rosenow, Curt, 984. Ross, C. F., 1027. Ross, H. W., 2056 (5). Rouma, Georges, 1569. Rounds, C. R., 153. Routzahn, Mary S., 2205. Roux, Joseph, 1744. Rowe, F. A., 601 (2). Rowley, F. H., 2161. Ruch, G. M., 1041. Rudolph, A. A., 1154. Ruediger, W. C, 1065 (1). Rugby, 445 (2). Rugg, E. U., 771. Rugg, H. O., 1000, 136S. Rugg, L. 8., 1876. Rugh, C. E., 1332 (5). Rule, J.N. ,1826(3). Rmnl, Beardsley, 227. Runnels county, Texas. Rural .scIukjIs^ 22^). Ruppenthal, J. C, 495. Rural economics, 535. Rural EDUCATIOK, 67-69, 275-284. .>37, TW-NM), iso\, 936 (4), 989 (12), 1054-1050, 1072, 1198 (If.), 121.3, 1324-1331, 1602-1610, 2064-2069. 22S7-22y(). S', Ethel L., 1877. Salmon, David, 183. Saltzberg, Florence B., 416. Sampon, C. H., 1309. Sandberg, Josef, 1907 (10). Sandwick, R. L., 722, 807 (3). Sanford, C. M., 379. Sanitation. See School hygiene and sanita- tion. Sansom, C, 1577. Santayana, George, 2317. Sargent, C. G., 805. Sargent, Walter, 1193 (5). Saure, E. B. dc, 2041. Schafor, A. L., 534, 858. SohlU, Anna M., .-)92. Schlcsinger, A. M., 506, 2279. Schmauk, T. E., 615,»90. Schmidt, H. W., 717. Schoele, F. L., 1299, 1992. , Schoff, Mrs. ¥., 1198 (4). Scholarships, 328, 1725 (8). School administration. See Administration, school.. School architecture, 114-11.3, 330-^40, 597-508, nil (S)-(IO), 1128. School attendance, 106, nil (6), 1443, 1873, 1897 (4), 2070, 2325. School boards, 1305. School bonds, nil (5). School children, nutrition, 1426; personality, 969, 1439; transportation, 1610. School discipline. See Discipline. .School finance, 103, 585, 683 (17), 938 (12), 939 (3), 1117-1118, 1332 (6), 1.559, 1725 (9), 1726 (9), 2130, 2132. .School gardens. ^Sre Gardens, school. School grounds, 857. Schoolhouses, 855-856, S58-859, 1414-1417, 1647- 1650, 1881-1882, 213^2139, 2330. School hygiene and sANrrATiQN, 116-121, 341-346, .)90-«00, 860-865, 939 (13), 1130-1135, 1418-1423, 1542 (13), 1651-165.5, 1883-1SS8, 2140-2145, 2330. School law. See Legislation. School life, 1173. School MANAGeME>n', 109-113, 335-338, o8$^d03, 852-H.>4. 1122-1127, 1406-1413, 1642-1646, 1873-18SO. 2133-2137, 2326-2329. School nurse, lis, 1194 (8), 1482 (6). School supervision . See Supervlsion . School .^uppues, 8.59, 1111 (1). School surveys. See Surveys, educational. School, medical inspect ion . See Medical inspec- tion OF SCHOOLS. Schoon maker, Mary B., Z¥)S (.'i). Schorling. Raleigh, 'iG. Schurman, J. G., 1381, lS(Vi. Schuyler, L. R., 44 (2). Schweikert, II. C, 1300. Science, 262-263; curriculum, 1332 (14); genera 1, 515-516, 7a.V7M, 787, 938 (10), 1039, 1041, 1797; in high schools, 1314; in universities and colleges,. 1313; hijstory, UWo, 1312, 2050; natural, 2273; tests, 1263. SaENCE ( teaching) 52-53, 264, 628, 788, 1231, 1315, 1796; elementary schools, 1036, 204d; high schools, 517, 1099, 1?J5; universities and colleges, 10:i5. SciENTrFic mana<;f.ment, 1725 (2). CURRENT EDUCATIONAL PUBUCATIONS — INDEX. 23 SOEMTinc RBSEAECH, 101, 323, 573-«75, 1100-1110, 1387-1300, 2120. Scott, A. W., 2116. Scott, E. H., 683 (8). Bcott, F. A., 267, 793 (0), 866 (5). Scott, W. D., 1157. Scott, W. L., 592. Scranton, Pa. Board of education, 2235. ScRANTON, Pa., survey, 2235. Scrimshaw, Stewart, 1465. Scripture, E. W., 1512. Sears, F. W., 635. Soars, J. B., 1736. Seashore, C. E., 1043, 1316 (2), 1807. Sochrist, F. K., 593. Secondary education, 70-74, 2H5-2Ss, 54(^-548, I06O-1064, 1094 (8), (10), 1332-1348, 161H612, 2070- 2082, 2291-2293. Secrloy, H. H., 1195 C3H4), W29. Segsworth, W. E., 1946. Skij^governmeni, student, 413 (i), (iiij-civ), (vi), 570, 634. Sell, E. S., 6S2 (9). Selvidge, R. W., 1150 (3). Sensenig, Barton, 2370. Service citizens of Delaware, 1942. Severance, Mrs. C. A., 192. SeWINO, 478. Sex education, 549, 1427-142S. 179.".. 2140 (11), 2U"». Seybolt, R. F., 496. Sharp, D. L., 1238. Sharp, F. C, 1199 (2). Sharp, 6. R., 1085. Sharpe, R. W., 30. Sharpless, Isaac, 1201. Shaw, Albert, 1213. Shaw, Ellen E., 792, 23.18 («). .Shaw, F. L., 107, 1542 (2). Shaw, H. L. K., 1654, 2140 (4). Shaw, J. P., jr., 2318. Shaw, Sir Napier, 100. Shawkey, M. P., 1118. Shearer, W. J., 050. Sheldon, £. £., 1466. Sheldon, W. D., 447. Shepard, W. H., 1364 (1). Shera, F. A., 1318. Sherwood, G. H., 1580. Shideler, E. H., 1801. Shields, T. E., 209. Shiels, Albert, 1170. Shlvely, I. M., 998. Shorey, Paul, 763 (5). Shorthand, teaching, 444 O"), >«J7 (17). Sbowalter, N. D., 695. Showerman, Grant, 210. Shriber, J. H., 1610. Shroy, J. L., 228. Shufeldt, R. W., 1042 (2). ShuU, G. A., 936 (11). aiepert, A. F., 1150 (10). Silcox, S., 444 (17). Silvester, A. R., 1134. Simon, Th., 469. Simons, Sarah E., 1290. Simpson, J. H., 456. Simpson, Lucie, 1671. Sims, N. L., 1660. Sims, W. S., 322. Sipple, L. B., 1070. Six-six plan, 1062. Skaggs, £. B., 307. Skinner, Margaret M., 2040. Slattery, Annie F., 1907 (17). Slattery, Margaret, 2346. . Sleman, Emaly F., 2081. Slocum, S. E., 463. Slutz, F. D., 1541 (4). SmaU, A. W., 211. Small, R. O., 1907 (2). Small, W. S., 1728 (13). Smallwood, Mabel E., 807 (12). Smart, T. J., 308. Smith, C. B., 899 (16). Smith, E. C, 1172. Smith, £. F., 696. Smifh, E. F., 1862. Smith, E. R., 2009. Smith, £. S., 595. Smith, G. M., 1542 (9). Smith, G. O., 1971 (4). Smith, H. J., 1958. Smith, H. L., 1087. Smith, H. P., 1086, 2130. Smith, H. W., 1347 (5). Smith, Harriot K., 142. Smith, Henrietta B., 1049. Smith, Holmes, 841 (24). Smith, L. O., 24 j 427, 2251. Smith, L. P., 682 (5). Smith, L. R., 66'. Smith, L.W., 2181. Smtth-Lever act, 1853. Smith, Mrs. LUUan E., 1291. Smith, M. L., 715 (i). Smith, M. M., 1285, 1591. Smith, Payson, 401, 1907 (I). Smith, R.K., 1198(7). Smith, R. R., 788. Smith, Reed, 212. Smith, T. A., 1332(14). •Sifrrn-TowNER BILL, 331-3.32, till, lllti, H9S, nou 1639, 1971 (16), 2124, 2126, 2128-2129, 2i:^l. Smith, W. A., 1348. Smith, W. C., 1208 (2). Smith, W. R., 680 (1). Smith, William, 1849. Snedden, David, 3.55, 3H1, r^w. fi22. ow cJ). li: Mi. 875-S7G, 1140-1145, 1438-1442, 10.¥J 16W). Iv.JMVV^ 2151-2154,2339-2341.. S0CL\L HYGIENE, 444 (1). SOCIAL SCIENCE, 767, 938 (9), 1W)1. Society for the promotion of piipiiK'orhif^ iHliira- tion, 1163. Society for the promotion of national EDrr.v- TioN, India. l.")7. 24 CUKRENT EDrc'ATIOXAL PUBLICATIONS — IXPEX. Society of college toachors of oducatiou, 1085. SoaoLOGY, 356; rural, 1800; teachiog, 680 (4), 767- 76S; ill universities aud colleges, 10(57. Soldiers, education, loa-ir>3, 409, 412, 649, "919, 1173, lo0», 1691-1692, 1944-1916, 2182-2185, 2365: in French universities, 6d0; Injured, reeducation, 41(M11, 651-652, 1174-1176, 1505-1508, 1914, 1946; France, 150-151. Sommers, C. L., 2:J12 (8). Sorabji, R. K., 951. SOROBinES, high school, 545. Souder, H. C, 1542 (8). ybuder, Wihner, 201S. South Carolina, education, 181; reconstruction, CivU war, 181. South Dakota educational association, 1542. Southwest Missouri state teachers college, Spring- field, Mo., '^069. Sowers, J. I., 1919. Spafford, Ivol, 89S (4). Spain, C. L., 1404. Spanish LANGUAGE, 1296, 1301; teaching, 39-10, 444 (14), 754, 807 (26), 2269. Spanton, W. T., 1583. Spargo, John, 1711. Spaulding, £. R., 143. Spaulding, F. E., 697, 1987, 2190. Spaulding, F. £., 941. Speech TRAINING, 52.W26, 1182, 1190 U''), 1320-1321. Sec alao PrniJC speaking. SPELLERS, 2j3. SpklixNG, 32, 17«5-1787, 2CB0, l.>2»)l; tests. 16, 224, 2247 ax;. Spencer, Rolxjrt, 18.54 (4). .Spjopel, J. K., liys(7). Spielinaji, M. A., 21.V5. Spohr. Wilhclmina H., Wi. Spokane, ^Vush. Public schools. 1119. SprowJs. J. \V., :!09. Stafford, 11. S., UW. Stafford, \V. P., 571. STAMMERING, l.')9. STANDARDIZATK/N , HKjs. Sta.sford REVISION tests, OSs, ysjj. Stanley, draoe C, 1(>*<9. Staplcs.r. L., 1^72. Staploi.. O. B., 4iy. Starch, Daniel, 1001. Starch spelling sc.vlk, 2217 (viii) (ix). Starkweather, J. A., 1959. Stvte axd F.i>rr\iif>N. Sre Enrc.vTiov amp state. ST.VTE I>E»'.\HTMKNT i)l' EDI CAT I >N. -ViT. stale Iite'*}iry ainl lii.stoncal usiJOciHlion of Norlli Caroliim, llW. v. Stati^iio, m 'uk)I. ;iJO. Slallrn. Taylor, VV2 (.')i. Stouins, K.C..(:s2(10;. Stt'arn^, W . N.. 11(»j. Sltfher, W. \.. 3:.2. .^toinway, h. S., i:jliU. .^tcrit, KdithC, 250. intern, WiUiam, 1570. Stetson, F. L., 1762. Stevens, E. B., 1N)1. Stevens, E. C, 1-111. Stevens, W. O., 572. Stevensoif, J. J., 1107. Stewart, Isabel M., 1088, 1778. Stewart, J. L., 1646. Stewart, J. S., 6S2 (12), 1382, 1S2S. Stewart, R. M., 1168, 1779. StiJhnan, C. B., 1316 (10), 1412, iftU (3). SUlweU, H. W., 283. Stimson, R. W., 1907 (14). Stinchliold, Sara M., 2199. Stineman, N. M., 2059. Stock, Q. C, 1808. Stockard, C. R., 393. Stockbrldge, F. P., 1004. Stockton, J. li., 49, 1276. StQlzle, R., 966. Stone, C. R., 1783. Stone, Grace W., 1199 (18). Stone, H. F., 1161 (1), 1481(n. Stone, R. E., 1282. Stoner, Winifred S., 1052. Stoops, R. O., 361. Storey, T. A., 604, 841 (9), S66 (I). Stoey tellino, 613. Stoufler, K. J., 2082. Stratton, Eleanor, 239. Straus, S. W., 796. Strayer, G. D., 978, 1120, 1199 C), 1400 (2), 1660, 2098, 2131, 2236. Stroekor, E. A., 1571. Street, F. A., 149S. Stroebe, L. L., 759. Strong, E. K., jr., 985. Strublo, Mildrod C, 2020. Struck, F. T., 1927. Strudwick, E., 1745. Stuart, Hugh, IS38. Studensky, Paul, 310. Student army training cmps, riiiversity of Kan- sas, 407. Student PUBLicAnoNS, 37. Studfnt sflf-government. Sec sklf-govern- MENT, student. Study, methods of, 1099; supervised, 590, 1125, . 1127, 1199 (3), 1S74-1875. Sturgeon, Jennie, 807 (23). Slurgis, Clipston, 1907 (19). Stuttgart, Ark. Board of ednoaiion, l.^50. Sullivan, O. M.,(J64. SUMMER CAMP.S, 353, Summers, L. Eva, 19S5. Sunday s(iiooi.«j, teaching, 615 .SuridwalJ, John, ISH^. Simuo, Dagiiy, 1152. ^Ul'ERINTINDEXTS, 1(W, lOt^, .U4, .Wi, 1112; COUllty, 1 1!>2, lt)71 (4)-C.")). .>>UP!-.RVj>5ioN, 3N7-:l-5S, 576. 5.-r)S7, U95 (4), 1198(5), 1403, 1735 (lov, high schools, .'ils; rural scho<»ls, 6S-<>9, 5?o. Mi'KRVlSOKS, 57>. Suran-Mabire, Mine. C, 655. SURVEYS, educational, 1199 (Js). 17W, l7lh; s^M-iul, 2233. Suzxallo, Henry, l.i2 (S), 1194 ij), f 4). Swift, F. H., 1071, 1121, 1630, i^Vl (1), 2i:>L>. Swiggett, O. L., 167. Switzer, Ella, 991. Sylvester, R. U., 229. C^RUE^•T KDUCATIOXAL rTBlJCATIONS — l^'DKX. 25 T. Tsbcr, C. W., 1641. Taft, Helen, 417, 10S9. Taft, Jessie, 062, 1703. Talbert, E. L., 164, 13&^. Talbot, Winthrop, 1171. Tanner, R. H., 1277. Tarbell, Ida M., 623, 1S22. Tarbell, R. W., 1425. Tassy, Edme, 198. Tate, Prant, 1510 (3). Tawney, R. II., 199. Taxation, 68.3 (8). Taylor, Bnicc, 444 (13). Taylor, C. C, 362. Taylor, C. K., 594. Taylor, H.C., 809 (15). Teachers, 82-83, 88, 294, 302-303, 1367, 1624, 1726 (4), 2092-2095, 20«^-2100; certmcatlou, 683 (9), 1619; ethics, 683 (7), 1198(6); health, 296; hygiene, 1419; married, 2296; men. 559, 562; organization, 558, 564, 1625, 1726 (1); pensions, .301, 310, 681; personality, 507, 1082, 1087; professionalism, 295, 309, 311, 313, 1084, 1352, 1355, 1368, 1630, 1720 (1) 2300; promotion, 2295; rating, 2299; rural, 308^ 550, 656; salaries, 79-81, 8:>-87, 89, 297-299, 3a'», 455-456, 557, 560-561, 565, 819, 823-825, 831 (3), 936 (7), 947, 1077, 1(XS1, 10S3, 10S9, 1103, 1213, 1350- 1357, 135^1361, 1364-1366, 1370, 1615-1617, 102.1, 1027-1628, 2098, 2297; shortage, 299, 306, 308-309, 6S3 (.3), 824, 8215, 829, 947-WS, 1072 (3)-(4), 1073, 1075, 1080-lOSl, 1091, i:J56, l:)61, 1(526, 2096-2097, 2294; sUtus, :m, 1332 (5); tenure, 1C22; training, 76, 78, 300, 3(»9, 549, 681, 6S.3 (10), (14), (20), 807, (1K2), 817-818, 832, 1065-1071, 1072 (7), 1198 (17), i:i57-l35S, 1542 (9), 1613, 1720 (12), 1850, 1971 (6); training in agriculture, 555; in high schr»ols, 552, 554, 1066; in scdenoe, 10.33; unions, 304, 820, 822, X2S, 8.30, 1078, 1085-1086, 1199 (5). 1631: in grades, 307; in politics, 1195 (3), 1199 (10); in universities and colleges, 572, 1362, 1725 (4)-(5). Teaching, 10-11, 90, 201-211, 459-463, 713-717, 813, fl6S-«7S, 1094 (2), 12;i3-1241, 13ftJ, 1W9, 1621, 1029, 1716-1752, 1993-1997, 2210 2243. Technical education. See Ixdi'stpjal educa- tion'; Voc.\tional education. Teeth. See Dental hygienk. Temple, Alice, 532, 1053. Tennessee, education, iri7. Tennessee. State departmen* of public iiisl ruc- tion, 17;<7. Terman, L. M., ZiO. Teeman .adult tests, 9SS. Terriil, Bertha M., 899 (13). TEirrs. Sfe Educational ti:.sts; Intklligexce tests. Aho undtr namcn of tfyU and names of subjfcU. Texas state teachers' as.so(iation, 1720. Tkxtbiwiw, 325, 58'.); free, 082 (1 ), 13;<2 (3). Thabault, Roger, 20S0. Thaler, W. H., 11, ISS9, 3)01. Thatcher, E. W., 848. Theisen, W. W., 1002, 1391, I7S4, IS 10. TbiUy, Frank, 841 (14). Thomas, Calvin, 2045. Thomas, Helen G., 513, 2a'»3. Thomas, J. M., 247. Thomas, R. H., 1679, 2168. Thoraason, C. C, 402. Thompson, C. W., 6U3. Thompson, F. F., 2069 (2). . Thompson, F. V.,.1820, 1907 (22), 1943. Thompson; Lo'.iise B., 1428. Thompson, W. O., 1371 (4), (7). Thomsen, M. JL., 952. Thomson, J. A., 433. Thorndike, E. L., 25, 723, 990, 1003, llO^i (1). 1429 (1). Thorndike, L. M., 231. Thorndike test, 2247 (viii). Thorndyke, Elizabeth, 129, 815. Thornton, H. N., 2139. Thorson.I. A., 859. Thnksher, H. M., 807 (18). Thrift, 60-03, 271, 527, 795-796, 938 (18), 1199 (4), 1230 (5), 1597, 1726 (8), 1971 (2), (11), 2060-2061. Thurstone, L. L., 232, 1011, 1163 (5). Thwing, C. F.. 1636, 1862, 2117. Tigert, J. J., 865. Tildsley, J. L., 1370. Tillingliast, C. C, 1830. Timbio, W. H., 1469, 1683. Tindall, G. M., 1317 (6). Todd, A. J., 841(11). Todd, Rhoda H., 23.38 (5). Toledo, Ohio. Board of education, 2297. Tombaugh, Alice, 807 (23). Tonini. Quintilio, 458. Toothaker, C. R., 1781. Torres, -Vrturo, 40, 712. Towne, C. F., 1690. Towner, It. M., 1199(8). Trabue, M. R., 1004. Tkahue tkst, 2247 (x)'. Tracy, G.C., 2037. Tread way, W. L., 1418 (4). Truancy, 661. " TnuK- False " test, 223. Tmeman, O. J., 1559. TrQpcr, J., 710. Trybora, J. H., 2021. Tubbs, E. v., 130, TuBERcur.osw, 343; school children, 1971 (3). Tuell, Harriet E., 256. Turner, A., 1971 (6). Turner, C. R., 394. Turner, E. A., 1996. Twiss, (}. R., 52-53, Tyler, n. W., 2298. TJ. Ullmau, B. L., 766. Umbaugh, O. F., 807 (22). United State.s, etlucation, 4-r>, 185-187, 190, 1211, 1542(l)-(2), 15-17-1552, 1734. See dso Plblic schools, United States. United States. IUkeau of r.incATioN, 1113. United States. ( hlldrou's buriuu, 144<), lt'»;l. United States. DiirARiMExv cf i.i.urATiox, :>!>i, 1113, 1120, 1398, 1400, 1405. United States. Federal board for votulional e«lu- cation, 138, 1920, 1934, 2350. United States. Women's burciii' . XMl. BXnXETiB OF TEE BtlBSAXr OF EDVCATIOV, 1921, No. 1. Monthly record of educational publicadomJ, January, 1921. 5 cts, . No. 2. Part I. Survey of the schools of Wilmington, Del. The educational, .back- ground; school organization, i^perviaion, and finance; a school buQdizi^ program. No. 2. Part II. Survey of the schools of Wilmington, Del. Sepai^ate. elementary courses; secondary education; spedal depcurtments and cdarse^. No. 3. Mon tidy r^ord of educational publications, February/ 1921. Sets. No. 4. Monthly record of educational publications, March-Apnril, 1921. 5 cts. ' No. 5, Part time education of various types. A report of the comniission cm the HBorganization of secondary education. No. 6. Opportunities for study at American graduate schools. • G. F» 2k)ok. - No. 7. Organization fox visual instruction. W. H. Dudley. ,No. 8. Foreign criticism of American education. W. J. Osbum. No. 9. Pi*e8ent status of music instruction in the colleges and high schoob i» tbe United States. Osboumo McConathy. , ■ ; No. io. The visiting teacher. Sophia C Gleim. No. II. Pharmaceutical ' education. Advance sheets from the Biennial survey/ - 1918r-1920- ' >. . No. 12. Englidi grammar in American schools before 1850. R. L. Lyman« , No. 13. The housing and equipment of kindeigartens. Julia Wade Abbot* .. No. 14. Education of the deaf. Percival Hall. Advance sheets from, the' Biennial . survey, 1918-1920.- No. 16. Medical education, 1918-1920. N. P. Colwell. Advance sheets from the Biennial suTN'ey, 1918-1920. *' No. 16. Special features in the education of the bUnd. £. E. Alleii. Advance : ' sheets from the Biennial survey, 1918-1920. No. 17. Educational boards and foundations. ~ Henry B. Evans. Advance steels from ^0 Biennial survey, 1918-1920. No. 18. Education in homeopathic medicine^ W. A. Dewey. Advance sheets from the Biennialsurvey, 1918-1920. No. 19. Kindergarten education. Julia Wade Abbot. Advance, sheets from the Biennialsurvey, 1918-1920. . , No. 2(K Developments in nursing education since 1918. M. Adelaide Nutting and • Isabel M. Stewart. Advance sheets from the Biennial survey, 1918*1920. No. 21. Higher education. G. F. Zook. Advance sheets from the Biennial survey, '- 1918-1920. ' No. 22. The certification of teachers governed by general State Uws and tegulatimi& . Katherine M. Cook. No. 23. Monthly record of educational publications, May-June, 1921. No. 24« Suggestions for the xeorganization of the schools in Currituck County, N. C. Katherine M. CJook. ... No. 26. A school building program for Athens, Ga. Alice B. Fernandez. . No. 26. Educational survey of Elizabeth City, N. 0. W, T. Bawden. No. 27. Training for foreign service. Harvard Ualvanjty/ Ubrary of the GradwtA Scho DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR \» BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN, 1921. No. 32 THE REORGANIZATION OF MATHEMATICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 9 A SUMMARY OF THE REPORT BY THE NATIONAL COMMITTEE ON MATHEMATICAL REQUIREMENTS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFRCE 1922 I ADDITIONAL COPIES or THIS PUBUCA.TION MAT BE PBOCUBED FROK THE BUPEBIMTENDENT Or DOCUMBMTS OOTXBNUEMT PBDmNO OmCB WASHINGTON^ D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY I • i CONTENTS. Page. The National Committee on Mathematical Kequiiements iv Introduction v Chapter I. A brief outline of the report 1 Chapter II. Aims of mathematical instruction — general principles 4 Chapter III. Mathematics for years seven, eight, and nine 16 Chapter IV. Mathematics for years ten, eleven, and twelve 27 Chapter V. College entrance requirements 36 Chapter VI. List of propositions in plane and solid geometry 47 Chapter VII. The function concept in secondary school mathematics 53 Chapter VIII. Terms and symbols in elementary mathematics 61 Synopsis of the remaining chapters of the complete report 71 Indbz 73 m THE NATIONAL COMMITTEE ON MATHEMATICAL REQUIREMENTS. (Under the auspices of The Mathematical Association of America.) OFFICERS. J. W. Young, chairman, Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H. J. A. Foberg, vice chairman. State Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. MBMBBRS. A. R. Crathome, University of Illinois. C. N. Moore, University of Cincinnati.^ E. H. Moore, University of Chicago. David Eugene Smith, Columbia University. H. W. Tyler, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. J. W. Young, Dartmouth College. W. F. Downey, English High School, Boston, Mass. Representing the Association of Teachers of Mathematics in New England.' Vevia Blair, Horace Mann School, New York City, Representing the Association of Teachers of Mathematics in the Middle States and Maryland. J. A. Foberg, director of mathematical instruction, State Department, Hanisbuig, Pa.* Representing the Central Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers. A. C. Olney, commissioner of secondary education, Sacramento, Calif. Raleigh Schorling, The Lincoln School, New York City. P. H. Underwood, Ball High School, Galveston, Tex. Eula A. Weeks, Cleveland High School. St. Louis, Mo. 1 Prof. Moore took the place vacated in 1918 by the resignation of Oswald Veblen, Princeton University, s l£r. Downey took the place vacated in 1919 by the resignation of O. W. Evans, Charlestown High School, Boston, Mass. • Until July, 1921, of the Crane Teohnloal High Scbool, Chicago, HL IV INTRODUCTION. The National Committee on Mathematical Requirements was organized in the late summer of 1916 imder the auspices of the Mathematical Association of America for the purpose of giving national expression to the movement for reform in the teaching of mathematics, which had gained considerable headway in various parts of the country, but which lacked the power that coordination and united effort alone could give. The original nucleus of the conunittee, appointed by Prof. £. R. Hedrick, then president of the association, consisted of the following: A. R. Crathome, University of Illinois; E. H. Moore, University of Chicago; D. E. Smith, Columbia University; H. W. Tyler, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Oswald Veblen, Princeton University; and J. W. Young, Dartmouth College, chairman. This conmuttee was instructed to add to its membership so as to secure adequate representation of secondary school interests, and then to. imdertake a comprehensive study of the whole problem concerned with the improvement of mathematical education and to cover the field of secondary and collegiate mathematics. This group held its first meeting in September, 1916, at Cambridge, Mass. At that meeting it was decided to ask each of the three large associations gf secondary school teachers of mathematics (The Association of Teachers of Mathematics in New England, The Association of Teachers of Mathematics in the Middle States and Maryland, and the Central Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers) to appoint an official representative on the conmuttee. At this time also a general plan for the work of the committee was outlined and agreed ui>on. In response to the request above referred to the following were appointed by the respective associations: Miss Vevia Blair, Horace Mann School, New York, N. Y., representing the Middle States and Maryland association; G. W. Evans, Charlestown High School, Boston, Mass., representing the New England association;^ and J. A. Foberg, Crane Technical High School, Chicago, 111., representing the central association. At later dates the following members were appointed: A. C. Olney, commissioner of secondary education, Sacramento, Calif.; Raleigh Schorling. The Lincoln School, New York City; P. H. Underwood, Bill Hig^ School, Galveston, Tex.; and Miss Ettla A. Weeks, Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Mo. From the very beginning of its deliberations the committee felt that the work assigned to it could not be done effectively without adequate financial support. The wide geographical distribution of its membership made a full attendance at meetings of the committee difficult if not impossible without financial resources sufficient to defray the traveling expenses of members, the expenses of clerical assist- ance, etc. Above all, it was felt that, in order to give to the ultimate recommenda- tions of the conmiittee the authority and effectiveness which they should have, it was necessary to arouse the interest and secure the active cooperation of teachers, administrators, and organizations throughout the coimtry — ^that the work of the conmiittee should represent a cooperative effort on a truly national scale. For over two years, owing in large part to the World War, attempts to secure ade- quate financial support proved unsuccessful. Inevitably also the war interfered with the committee's work. Several members were engaged in war work " and the others were carrying extra burdens on account of such work carried on by their colleagues. 1 Mr. Bvans resigned in the sonuner of 1919, owing to an extended trip abroad; his place was taken by W. F. Downey, English High School, Boston, Mass. * Prof. Veblen resigned in 1917 on aooount of the pressure of his war duties. His place was taken on the committee by Prof. C. N. Moore, University of Cincinnati. V VI INTRODUCTION. In the spring of 1919, however, and again in 1920, the committee was fortunate in securing generous appropriations from the General Education Board of New York City for the prosecution of its work.' Thifl made it possible greatly to extend the committee's activities. The work was planned on a large scale for the purpose of organizing a truly nation-wide dis- cussion of the problems facing the committee, and J. W. Young and J. A. Fobeig were selected to devote their whole time to the work of the committee. Suitable office space was secured and adequate stenographic and clerical help was employed. The results of the committee 's work and deliberations are presented in the following report. A word as to the methods employed may, however, be of interest at this point. The committee attempted to establish working contact with all organiza- tions of teachers and others interested in its problems and to secure their active assistance. Nearly 100 such organizations have taken part in this work. A list of these organizations will be found in the complete report of the committee. Provi- sional reports on various phases of the problem were submitted to these cooperating organizationB in advance of publication, and criticisms, comments, and suggestions for improvement were invited from individuals and special cooperating committees. The reports previously published for-the committee by the United States Biueau of 'Education ^ and in The Mathematics Teacher ^ and dedgnated-'as *' preliminary ' ' are the result of this kind of cooperation. The value of such assistance can hardly be overestimated and the committee desires to express to all individuals, organizations, and educational journals that have taken part its hearty appreciation and thanks. The committee believes it is safe to say, in view of the methods used in formu- lating them, that the reconmiendations of this final report have the approval of the great majority of progressive teachers throughout the country. No attempt has been made in this report to trace the origin and history of the various proposals and movements for reform nor to give credit either to individuals or organizations for initiating them. A convenient starting point for the history of the modem movement in this country may be found in E. H. Moore 's presidential address before the American Mathematical Society in 1902.' But the movement here is only one manifestation of A movement that is world-wide and in which very many indi- viduals and organizations have played a prominent part. The student interested in this phase of the subject is referred to the extensive publications of the Interna- tional Gomnussion on the Teaching of Mathematics, to the Bibliography of the Teach- ing of Mathematics, 1900-1912, by D. E. Smith and G. Goldziher (U. S. Bur. of Educ, Bull., 1912, No. 29) and to the bibliography (since 1912) to be found in the complete report of the national committee (Gh. XVI). The national committee expects to maintain its office, with a certain amount of clerical help, during the year 1921-22 and perhaps for a longer period . It is hoped that in this way it may continue to serve as a clearing house for all activities looking to the improvement of the teaching of mathematics in this country, and to aaaist in bringing about the effective adoption in practice of the recommendations made in the following report, with such modifications of them as continued study and experi- mentation may show to be desirable. > Again In Nov., 1921, the General Education Board made appropriations to cover the expense of publishing and distributing the complete report of the committee and to enable the committee to cany on certain phases of its work during the year 1922. * The Reorganixatlon of the Fir^t Courses in Secondary School ICathematlcs, V. S. Bureau of Educatfoo, Secondary School Circular, No. 5, February, 1920. 11 pp. Junior High School Mathematics, U. S. Bureau of Education, Secondary School Circular, No. 6, July, 1920. 10 pp. The Function Concept in Secondary School Mathematics , Secondary School Circular No. 8, June, 1921. 10 pp. 4 Terms and Symbols in Elementary Mathematics, The Mathematics Teacher, 14: 107-118, March, 1921, Elective Courses in Mathematics for Secondary Schools, The Mathematics Teacher, 14: 161-170, April, 1921 College Entrance Requirements in Mathematics, The Mathematics Teacher, 14: 224-245, May, 1021. • B. H. Moore: On the Foundations of Mathematics, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Soeietyt vol. 0<1908-3), p. 408; Science, 17: 401. THE REORGANIZATION OF MATHEMATICS IN SEC- ONDARY EDUCATION. Chapter I. A BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE REPORT. The present chapter gives a brief general outline of the contents of this pamphlet for the purpose of orienting the reader and making it possible for him to gain quickly an imderstanding of its scope and the problems which it considers. The valid aims and purposes of instruction in mathematics are considered in Chapter II. A formulation of such aims and a state^ ment of general principles governing the committee's work is necessary as a basis for the later specific reconmiendations. Here will be found the reasons for including mathematics in the course of study for all secondary school pupils. To the end that all pupils in the period of secondary education shall gain early a broad view of the whole field of elementary mathe- matics, and, in particular, in order to insure contact with this impor- tant element in secondary education on the part of the very large number of pupils who, for one reason or another, drop out of school, by the end of the ninth year, the national conmiittee reconmiends emphatically that the course of study in mathematics during the seventh, eighth, and ninth years contain the fimdamental notions of arithmetic, of algebra, of intuitive geometry, of numerical trigo- nometry and at least an introduction to demonstrative geometry, and that this body of material be required of all secondary school pupils. A detailed account of this material is given in Chapter III. Careful study of the later years of our elementary schools, and com- parison with European schools, have shown the vital need of reorgan- ization of mathematical instruction, especially in the seventh and eighth years. The very strong tendency now evident to consider elementary education as ceasing at the end of the sixth school year, and to consider the years from the seventh to the twelfth inclusive as comprising years of secondary education, gives impetus to the movement for reform of the teaching of mathematics at this stage. The necessity for devising courses of study for the new junior high school, comprising the years seven, eight, and nine, enables us to 1 2 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION. present a body of materials of instruction, and to propose organiza- tions of this material that will be valid not only for jimior high schools conducted as separate schools, but also for years seven and eight in the traditional eight-year elementary school and the first year of the four-year high school. While Chapter III is devoted to a consideration of the body of material of instruction in mathematics that is regarded as of suffi- cient importance to form part of the course of study for all secondary ,school pupUs, Chapter IV is devoted to consideration of the types of material that properly enter into courses of study for pupils who continue their study of mathematics beyond the minimum regarded as essential for all pupils. Here will be found recommendations con- cerning the traditional subject matter of the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth school years, and also certain material that heretofore has been looked upon in this coimtry as belonging rather to college courses of study; as, for instance, the elementary ideas and processes of the calculus. Chapter V is devoted to a study of the types of secondary school instruction in mathematics that may be looked upon as furnishing the best preparation for successful work in college. This study leads to the conclusion that there is no conflict between the needs of those pupils who ultimately go to college and those who do not. Certain very definite recommendations are made as to changes that appear desirable in the statement of college-entrance requirements and in the type of college-entrance examination. Chapter VI contains Usts of propositions and constructions in plane and in soUd geometry. The propositions are classified in such a way as to separate from others of less importance those which are regarded as so fundamental that they should form the common minimum of any standard course in the subject. This chapter has close connection with the two chapters which immediately precede it. The statement previously made in our preliminary reports and repeated in Chapter II, that the fimction concept should serve as a unifying element running throughout the instruction in mathematics of the secondary school-, has brought many requests for a more precise definition of the r61e of the fimction concept in secondary school mathematics. Chapter VII is intended to meet this demand. Recommendations as to the adoption and use of terms and sym- bols in elementary mathematics are contained in Chapter VIII. It is intended to present a norm embodying agreement as to best current practice. It will tend to restrict the irresponsible introduction of new. terms and symbols, but it does not close the door entirely on innovations that may from time to time prove serviceable and de- sirable. OUTUlirB OF THE EEPORT. 8 I The chapters of the complete report thus far referred to appear m full in this summary. The remaining chapters of the complete report I give for the most part the results of special investigations prepared for the national committee. The contents of these chapters are I indicated sufficiently at the end of the present summary to enable the reader to decide whether or not he is interested in the studies mentioned, and whether or not he desires the complete report. k Copies of thQ complete report of the national committee, which \\ will probablj be ready for distribution in the spring of 1922, maybe r had, free of charge, upon application addressed to the chairman. Prof. J. W. Young, Hanover, N. H. \. Chapter n. AIMS OP MATHEMATICAL INSTRUCTION— GENERAL PRINCIPLES. I. INTRODUCTION. A discussion of mathematical education, and of ways and means of enhancing its value, must be approached first of all on the basis of a precise and comprehensive formulation of the valid aims and purposes of such education.^ Only on such a basis can we approach intelli- gently the problems relating to the selection and organization of material, the methods of teaching and the point of view which should govern the instruction, and the qualifications and training of the teachers who impart it. Such aims and purposes of the teaching of mathematics, moreover, must be sought in the nature of the subject, the rdle it plays in the practical, intellectual, and spiritual life of the world, and in the interests and capacities of the students. Before proceeding with the formulation of these aims, however, we may properly limit to some extent the field of our enquiry. We are concerned primarily with the period of secondary education — comprising, in the modem junior and senior high schools, the period beginning with the seventh and ending with the twelfth school year, and concerning itself with pupils ranging in age normally from 12 to 18 years. References to the mathematics of the grades below the seventh (mainly arithmetic) and beyond the senior high school will be only incidental. Furthermore, we are primarily concerned at this point with what may be described as ''general" aims, that is to say aims which are valid for large sections of the school population and which may properly be thought of as contributing to a general education as distinguished from the specific needs of vocational, technical, or professional education. n. THE AIMS OF MATHEMATICAL INSTRUCTION. With these limitations in mind we may now approach the problem of formulating the more important aims that the teaching of mathe- matics should serve. It has been customary to distinguish three 1 RefereQoe may here be m&de to the formulation of the*princlpal alms in edacation to be foimd in the Cardinal Prlndplea of Secondary Education, published by the U. S. Bureau of Education as Bulletin No. 65, 1918. The main objectives of education are there stated to be: l . Health; 2. Command of fundamental processes; 3. Worthy home membership; 4. Vocation: 5. Citizenship; 8. Worthyuse of leisure;?. Ethical character. These objectives are held to apply to all education— elementary, secondary, and higher— and all subjects of instruction are to contribute to their achievement . 4 AIMS OF MATHEMATICAL INSTRUCTION. 5 classes of aims: (1) Practical or utilitarian, (2) disciplinary, (3) cultural; and such a classification is indeed a convenient one. It should be kept clearly in mind, however, that the three classes mentioned are not mutually exclusive and that convenience of dis- cussion rather than logical necessity often assigns a given aim to one or the other of the classes. Indeed any truly disciplinary aim is practical, and in a broad sense the same is true of cultural aims. Practical aims.— By a practical or utilitarian aim, in the narrower sense, we mean then the immediate or direct usefulness in life of a fact, method or process in mathematics. 1. The immediate and undisputed utility of the fundamental proc- esses of arithmetic in the life of every individual demands our first attention. The first instruction in these processes, it is true, falls outside the period of instruction which we are considering. By the end of the sixth grade the child should be able to carry out the four fundamental operations with integers and with common and decimal fractions accurately and with a fair degree of speed. This goal can be reached in all schools — as it is being reached in many — if the work is done under properly qualified teachers and if drill is confined to the simpler cases which alone are of importance in the practical life of the great majority. (See more specifically, Ch. Ill, pp. 7, 18.) Accuracy and facility in numerical computation are of such vital importance, however, to every individual that effective drill in this subject should be continued throughout the secondary school period, not in general as a separate topic, but in connection with the numerical problems arising in other work. In this numerical work, besides accuracy and speed, the following aims are of the greatest importance : (a) A progressive increase in the pupil's understanding of the nature of the fundamental operations and power to apply them in new situations. The fundamental laws of algebra are a potent influence in this direction. (See 3, below.) (ft) Exercise of common sense and judgment in computing from approximate data, familiarity with the effect of small errors in measurements, the determination of the number of figures to bo used in computing and to be retained in the result, and the like. (c) The development of self-reliance in the handling of numerical problems, through the consistent use of checks on all numerical work. 2. Of almost equal importance to every educated person is an understanding of the language of algebra and the ability to use this language intelligently and readily in the expression of such simple quantitative relations as occur in every-day life and in the normal reading of the educated person. Appreciation of the significance of formulas and ability to work out simple problems by setting up and solving the necessary equations 6 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION. must nowadays be included among the minimum requirements of any program of universal education. 3. The development of the ability to understand and to use such elementary algebraic methods involves a study of the fulidamental' laws of algebra and at least a certain minimum of drill in algebraic technique, which, when properly taught, will furnish the foundation for an understanding of the significance of the processes of arith- metic already referred to. The essence of algebra as distinguished from arithmetic hes in the fact that algebra concerns itself with the operations upon numbers in general, while arithmetic confines itself to operations on particular numbers. 4. The ability to understand and interpret correctly graphical representations of various kinds, such as nowadays abound in popular discussions of current scientific, social, industrial, and political prob- lems will also* be recognized as one of the necessary aims in the edu- cation of every individual. This applies to the representation of statistical data, which is becoming increasingly important in the consideration of our daily problems, as well as to the representation and understanding of various sorts of dependence of one variable quantity upon another. 5. Finally, among the practical aims to be served by the study of mathematics should be listed familiarity with the geometric forma common in nature, industry, and hfe; the elementary properties and relations of thes6 forms, including their mensuration; the develop- ment of space-perception; and the exercise of spatial imagination. This involves acquaintance with such fundamental ideas as con- gruence and similarity and with such fundamental facts as those concerning the sum of the angles of a triangle, the pythagorean proposition and the areas and volumes of the common geometric forms. Among directly practical aims should also be included the acquisi- tion of the ideas and concepts in terms of which the quantitative thinking of the world is done, and of abiUty to think clearly in terms of those concepts. It seems more convenient, however, to discuss this aim in connection with the disciplinary aims. Disciplinary aims. — We would include here those aims which relate to mental training, as distinguished from tlie acquisition of certain specific skills discussed in the preceding section. Such training involves the development of certain more or less general characteristics and the formation of certain mental habits which, besides being directly applicable in the setting in which they are developed or formed, are expected to operate also in more or less closely related fields — that is, to 'transfer" to other situations. The subject of the transfer of training has for a number of years been a very controversial one. Only recently has there been any AIMS OF MATHEMATICAL. INSTRUCTION. 7 evidence of agreement among the body of educational psychologists. We need not at this point go into detail as to the present status of disciplinary values since this forms the subject of a separate chapter in the complete report (Chap. IX; see also Chap. X). It is suffi- cient for our present purpose to call attention to the fact that most psychologists have abandoned two extreme positions as to transfer of training. The first asserted that a pupil trained to reason well in geometry would thereby be trained to reason equally well in any other subject; the second denied the possibiUty of any transfer^ and hence the possibiUty of any general mental training. That the effects of training do transfer from one field of learning to another is now, however, recognized. The amount of transfer m any given case depends upon a number of conditions. If these conditions are favorable, there may be considerable transfer, but in any case the amount of transfer is difficult to measure. Training in connection with certain attitudes, ideals, and ideas is almost imiversally admitted by psychologists to have general value. It may, therefore, be said that, with proper restrictions, general mental discipline is a valid aim in education. The aims which we are discussing are so important in the'restricted domain of quantitative and spatial (i. e., mathematical or partly mathematical) thinking which every educated individual is called upon to perform that we do not need for the sake of our argument to raise the question as to the extent of transfer to less mathematical situations. In formulating the disciplinary aims of the study of mathematics the following should be mentioned: (1) The acquisition, in precise form, of those ideas or concepts in terms of which the quantitative thinking of the world is done. Among these ideas and concepts may be mentioned ratio and measure- ment Gengths, areas, volumes, weights, velocities, and rates in gen- eral, etc), proportionality and similarity, positive and negative numbers, and the dependence of one quantity upon another. (2) The development of abihty to think clearly in terms of such ideas and concepts. This ability involves training in — (a) Analysis of a complex situation into simpler parts. This in- cludes the recognition of essential factors and the rejection of the irrelevant. (i) The recognition of logical relations between interdependent factors and the understanding and, if possible, the expression of such relations in precise form. (c) Generalization; that is, the discovery, and formulation of a general law and an understanding of its properties and applications. (3) The acquisition of mental habits and attitudes which will make the above training effective in the life of the individual. Among 10 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION. alone intelligent appreciation of formal demonstrative work is possible. The one great idea which is best adapted to unify the course is that of the functional relcUion. The concept of a variable and of the dependence of one variable upon another is of fundamental importance to everyone. It is true that the general and abstract form of these concepts can become significant to the pupil only as a result of very considerable mathematical experience and training. There is nothing in either concept, however, which prevents the presentation of specific concrete examples and illustrations of dependence even in the early parts of the course. Means to this end will be found in connection with the tabulation of data and the study of the formula and of the graph and of their uses. The primary and imderlying principle of the course should be the idea of relationship between variables, including the methods of determining and expressing such relationship. The teacher should have this idea constantly in mind, and the pupil's advancement should be consciously directed along the lines which will present first one and then another of the ideas upon which finally the forma- tion of the general concept of functionality depends. (For a more detailed discussion of these ideas see Chap. VII below.) The general ideas which appear more explicitly in the course and under the dominance of one or another of which all topics should be brought are: (1) The formula, (2) graphic representation, (3) the equation, (4) measurement and computation, (5) congruence and similarity, (6) demonstration. These are considered in more detail in a later section of the report (Chaps. Ill and IV). IV. THE ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT MATTER. ^' General^* courses. — We have already called attention to the fact that, in the earlier periods of instruction especially, logical principles of organization are of less importance than psychological and peda^ gogical principles. In recent years there has developed among many progressive teachers a very significant movement away from the older rigid division into *' subjects'' such as arithmetic, algebra, and geometry, each of which shall be '^completed" before another is begim, and toward a rational breaking down of the barriers separat- ing these subjects, in the interest of an organization of subject matter that will ofl^er a psychologically and pedagogically more effective approach to the study of mathematics. There has thus developed the movement toward what are variously called '^composite,'' *' correlated," '^unified,'' or "general" courses. The advocates of this new method of organization base their claims on the obvious and important interrelations between arithmetic, algebra, and geometry (mainly intuitive), which the student must grasp AIMS OF MATHEMATICAL INSTEUCTION. 11 before he can gain any real insight into mathematical methods and which are inevitably obscured by a strict adherence to the concep- tion of separate ''subjects/' The movement has gained considerable new impetus by the growth of the junior high-school idea, and there can be little question that the results already achieved by those who are experimenting with the new methods of organization warrant the abandonment of the extreme "water-tight compartment" methods of presentation. The newer method of organization enables the pupil to gain a broad view of the whole field of elementary methematics early in his high-school course. In view of the very lai^e number of pupils who drop out of school at the end of the eighth or the ninth school year or who for other reasons then cease their study of mathematics, this fact offers a weighty advantage over the older type of organiza- tion under which the pupil studied algebra alone during the ninth school year, to the complete exclusion of all contact with geometry. It should be noted, however, that the specific recommendations as to content given in the next two chapters do not necessarily imply the adoption of a different type of organization of the materials of instruction. A large number of high schools will for some time con- tinue to find it desirable to organize their courses of study in mathe- matics by subjects — algebra, plane geometry, etc. Such schools are urged to adopt the recommendations made with reference to the content of the separate subjects. These, in the main, constitute an essential simplification as compared with present practice. The economy of time that will result in courses in ninth-year algebra, for instance, will permit of the introduction of the newer type of mate- rial, including intuitive geometry and numerical trigonometry, and thus the way will be prepared for the gradual adoption in larger measure of the recommendations of this report. At the present time it is not possible to designate any particular order of topics or any organization of the materials of instruction as being the best or as calculated most effectively to realize the aims and purposes here set forth. More extensive and careful experi- mental work must be done by teachers and administrators before any such designation can be made that shall avoid undesirable extremes and that shall bear the stamp of general approval. This experi- mental work will prove successful in proportion to the skill and insight exercised in adapting the aims and pm*poses of instruction to the interests and capacities of the pupils. One of the greatest weak- nesses of the traditional courses is the fact that both the interests and the capacities of pupils have received insufficient consideration and study. For a detailed account of courses in mathematics at a nxmi- d8867®— -21 2 12 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION. ber of the most successful experimental schools, the reader is referred to Chapter XII of the complete report. Required courses, — ^The national committee believes that the material described in the next chapter should be required of all pupils, and that under favorable conditions this minimum of work can be completed by the end of the ninth school year. In the junior high school, comprising grades seven, eight, and nine, the course for these three years should be planned as a unit with the purpose of giving each pupil the most valuable nutthemaiical training lie is capable of receiving in those years, with litUe reference to courses which he may or may not take in succeeding years. In particular, college-entrance requkements should, during these years, receive no specific considera- tion. Fortunately there appears to be no conflict of interest during this period between those pupils who ultimately go to college and those who do not; a course planned in accordance with the principle just enunciated wiU form a desirable foundation for college prepara- tion. (See Ch. V.) Similarly, in case of the at present more prevalent 8-4 school organization, the mathematical material of the seventh and eighth grades should be selected and oi^anized as a unit with the same purpose; the same applies to the work of the first year (ninth grade) of the standard foiu'-year high school, and to later years in* which mathematics may be a required subject. In the case of some elective courses the principle needs to be modified so as to meet whatever specific vocational or technical purposes the courses may have. (See Ch. IV.) The movement toward correlation of the work in mathematics with other courses in the curriculum, notably those in science, is as yet in its infancy. The results of such efforts will be watched with the keenest interest. The junior high-school movement. — Reference has several times been made to the junior high school. The national committee adopted the following resolution on April 24, 1920: The national committee approves the jimior high school form of organization, and uiges its general adoption in the conviction that it will secure greater efficiency in the teaching of mathematics. The committee on the reorganization of secondary education, appointed by the National Education Association, in its pamphlet on the ''Cardinal Principles of Secondary School Education,^' issued in 1918 by the Bureau of Education, advocates an organization of the school system whereby the first six years shall be devoted to elemen- tary education, and the following six years to secondary education to be divided into two periods which may be designated as junior and senior periods. AIMS OF MATHEMATICAL INSTEUCTION. 13 To those interested in the study of the questions relating to the history and present status of the junior high-school movement, the following books are recommended: Principles of Secondary Educa- tion, by Inglis, Houghton Mifflin & Co., 1918 ; The Junior High School, The Fifteenth Yearbook (Pt. Ill) of the National Society for the Study of Education, Public School Publishing Co., 1919; The Junior High School, by Bennett, Warwick & York, 1919; The Junior High School, by Briggs, Houghton Mifflin & Co., 1920; and The Junior EQgh School, by Koos, Harcourt, Brace & Howe, 1920. V. THE TRAINING OP TEACHERS. While the greater part of this report concerns itself with the content of courses in mathematics, their organization and the point of view which should govern the instruction, and investigations relating thereto, the national committee must emphasize strongly its convic- tion that even more fundamental is the problem of the teacher — his qualifications and training, his personality, skill, and enthusiasm. The greater part of the failure of mathematics is due to poor teach- ing. Good teachers have in the past succeeded, and continue to succeed, in achieving highly satisfactory results with the traditional material; poor teachers will not succeed even with the newer and better material. The United States is far behind Europe in the scientific and pro- fessional training required of its secondary school teachers (see Ch. XIV of the complete report). The equivalent of two or three years of graduate and professional training in addition to a general coUege course is the normal requirement for secondary school teachers in most European countries. Moreover, the recognized position of the teacher in the community must be such as to attract men and women of the highest abiUty into the profession. This means not only higher salaries but smaller classes and more leisure for continued study and professional advancement. It will doubtless require a considerable time before the public can be educated to realize the wisdom of taxing itself sufficiently to bring about the de- sired result. But if this ideal is continually advanced and supported by sound argument there is every reason to hope that in time the goal may be reached. In the meantime everything possible should be done to improve the present situation. One of the most vicious and widespread practices consists in assigning a class in mathematics to a teacher who has had no special training in the subject and whose interests lie elsewhere, because in the construction of the time schedule he or she happens to have a vacant period at the time. This is done on the principle, apparently, that ''anybody can teach mathematics" by simply Chapter HI. MATHEMATICS FOR YEARS SEVEN, EIGHT AND NINE. I. INTRODUCTION. There is a well-marked tendency among school administrators to consider grades one to six, inclusive, as constituting the elementary school and to consider the secondary school period as commencing with the seventh grade and extending through the twelfth.* Con- forming to this view, the contents of the courses of study in mathe- matics for grades seven, eight, and nine are considered together. In the succeeding chapter the content for grades 10, 11, and 12 is considered. The committee is fully aware of the widespread desire on the part of teachers throughout the country for a detailed syllabus by yeai-s or half years which shall give the best order of topics with specific time allotments for each. This desire can not be met at the present time for the simple reason that no one knows what is the best order of topics nor how much time should be devoted to each in an ideal course. The committee feels that its reconmiendations should be so formiilated as to give every encouragement to further experimenta- tion rather than to restrict the teacher's freedom by a standardized syllabus. However, certain suggestions as to desirable arrangements of the material are offered in a later section (Sec. Ill) of this chapter, and in Chapter XII (Mathematics in Experimental Schools) of the com- plete report there will be found detailed outlines giving the order of presentation and time allotments in actual operation in schools of various types. This material should be helpful to teachers and administrators in planning courses to fit their individual needs and conditions. It is the opinion of the committee that the material included in this chapter should be required of all pupils. It includes mathe- matical knowledge and training which is likely to be needed by every citizen. Differentiation due to special needs should be made after and not before the completion of such a general minimum foundation. Such portions of the recommended content as have 1 See Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, p. 18. "We therefore recommend a reorganization of the school system whereby the first six years shall be deyoted to elementary' education designed to meet the needs of pupils of approximately 6 to 12 years of age; and the second 6 years to secondary education designed to meet the needs of approximately 12 to 18 years of age. * * * The 6 years to be devoted to secondary education may weU be divided into two peiiods which may be designated as the Junior and senicM: periods." 16 MATHEMATICS FOR TEARS 7-9. 17 not been completed by the end of the ninth year should be required in the following year. The general principles which haye governed the selection of the material presented in the next section and which should govern the point of view of the teaching have already been stated (Ch. II). At this point it seems desirable to recall specifically what was then said concerning principles governing the organization of material, the importance to be attached to the development of insight and understanding and of ability to think clearly in terms of relation- ships (dependence) and the limitations imposed on drill in algebraic manipulation. In addition we would call attention to the following: It is assumed that at the end of the sixth school year the pupil will be able to perform with accuracy and with a fair degree of speed the fundamental operations with integers and with common and decimal fractions. The fractions here referred to are such simple ones in common use as are set forth in detail under A (c) in the following section. It may be pointed out that the standard of attainment here implied is met in a large number of schools, as is shown by various tests now in use (see Ch. XIII of the complete report), and can easily be met generally if time is not wasted on the relatively unimportant parts of the subject. In adapting instruction in mathematics to the mental traits of pupils care should be taken to maintain the mental growth too often stunted by secondary school materials and methods, and an effort should be made to associate with inquisitiveness, the desire to experiment, the wish to know ''how and why," and the like, the satisfaction of these needs. In the years under consideration it is also especially important to give the pupils as broad an outlook over the various fields of mathematics as is consistent with sound scholarship. These years especially are the ones in which the pupil should have the oppor- tunity to find himself, to test his abilities and aptitudes, and to secure information and experience which will help him choose wisely his later courses and ultimately his life work. n. MATERIAL FOR GRADES SEVEN, EIGHT, AND NINE. In the material outlined in the following pages no attempt is made to indicate the most desirable order of presentation. Stated by topics rather than years the mathematics of grades seven, eight, and nine may properly be expected to include the following: A. Arithmetic: (a) The fundamental operations of arithmetic. w " Tables of weights and measures in general practical use, including the meet oominon metric units (meter, centimeter, millimeter, kilometer, gram. Idlogram, liter). The meaning of such foreign monetary units as pound, franc, ana marJE. 18 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION. (c) Such simple fractions as i, i. §, i, }, \, i ; others than these to have less attention. (d) Facility and accuracy in tne four fundamental operations; time tests, taking care to avoid subordinating the teaching to the tests, or to use the tests as measures ■ " ■ ~:tii, of the teacher's efficiency. {See Ch. XIII.) (e) Such simple short cuts in multiplicatioi plication by 2d by multipljin^ by 100 and dividing by 4. (/) Percentage. Interchanging common fractions and _ cent of a number; finding what per cent one number is of another; finding a num (e) Such simple short cuts in multiplication and division as that of replacing multi- & by multinhinfir by 100 (/) Percentage. Interchanging common fractions and per cents; finding any per per cent one number is of another; finding a number when a certain per cent of it is known; and such applications of percentage as come within the student's experience. (a) Line, bar^ and circle graphs wherever they can be used to advantage. (%) Arithmetic of the home: Household accounts, thrift, simple bookkeeping, methods of sending money, parcel post. Arithmetic of the community: Property and personal insurance, taxes. Ajithmetic of banking: Savings accounts, checking accounts. Arithmetic of investment: Heal estate, elementary notions of stocks and bonds, postal saving. (i) Statistics: Fundamental concepts, statistical tables and graphs; pictograms; graphs showing simple frequency distributions. It will be seen that the material listed above includes some material of earlier instruction. This does not mean that this material is to be made the direct object of study but that drill in it shall be given in connection with the new work. It is felt that this shift in emphasis will make the arithmetic processes here involved much more efiFective and will also result in a great saving of time. The amount of time devoted to arithmetic as a distihct subject should be greatly reduced from what is at present customary. This does not mean a lessening of emphasis on drill in arithmetic processes for the purpose of securing accuracy and speed. The need for con- tinued arithmetic work and numerical computation throughout the secondary school period is recognized elsewhere in this report. (Ch.II.) The applications of arithmetic to business should be continued late enough in the course to bring to their study the pupil's greatest maturity, experience, and mathematical knowledge, and to insure real significance of this study in the business and industrial life which many of the pupils will enter upon at the close of the eighth or ninth school year. (See I below.) In this connection care should be taken that the business practices taught in the schools are in accord with the best actual usage. Arithmetic should not be' completed before the pupil has acquired the power of using algebra as an aid. B, Intuitive geometry: (a) The direct measurement of distances and angles by means of a linear scale and protractor. The approximate character of measurement. An understanding of what is meant by the degree of precision as expressed by the number of "significant" figures. (b) Areas of the square, rectangle, pai^allelogram, triangle, and trapezoid; circumference and area of a circle; surfaces and volumes of solids of corresponding importance; the construction of the corre- sponding formulas. ♦ MATHEMATICS FOR YEARS 7-9. 19 (c) Practice in numerical computation ^vlth due regard to the num- ber of figures used or retained. id) Indirect measurement by means of drawings to scale. Uses of square ruled paper. (e) Geometry of appreciation. Geometric forms in nature, archi- tecture, manufacture, and industry. (f) Simple geometric constructions with ruler and compasses, T-square, and triangle, such as that of the perpendicular bisector, the bisector of -an angle, and parallel lines. ((/). Familiarity with such forms as the equilateral triangle, the 30^-60° right triangle, and the isosceles right triangle; symmetry; a knowledge of such facts as those concerning the sum of the angles of a triangle and the Pythagorean relation; simple cases of geometric loci in the plane and in space. (h) Informal introduction to the idea of similarity. The work in intuitive geometry should make the pupil familiar with the elementary ideas concerning geometric forms in the plane . and in space with respect to shape, size, and position. Much oppor- tunity should be provided for exercising space perception and imagi- nation. The simpler geometric ideas and relations in the plane may properly be extended to three dimensions. The work should, more- over, be carefully planned so as so bring out geometric relations and logical connections. Before the end of this intuitive work the pupU should have definitely begun to make inferences and to draw valid conclusions from the relations discovered. In other words, this informal work in geometry should be so organized as to make it a gradual approach to, and provide a foundation for, the subsequent work in demonstrative geometry. (7. Algebra: 1. The formula — its construction, meaning, and use (a) as a con- cise language; (fi) as a shorthand rule for computation; (c) as a gen- eral solution; (d) as an expression of the dependence of one variable upon another. The pupil will already have met the formula in connection with intuitive geometry. The work should now include translation from English into algebraic language, and vice versa, and special care should be taken to make sure that the new language is imderstood and used intelligently. The nature of the dependence of one variable in a formula upon another should be examined and analyzed, with a view to seeing "how the formula works." (See Ch. VII.) 2. Graphs and graphic representations in general — their construc- tion and interpretation in (a) representing facts (statistical, etc.); (b) representing dependence; (c) solving problems. After the necessary technique has been adequately presented graphic representation should not be considered as a separate topic 20 MATHEMATICS IK SECONDARY EDUCATION. but should be used throughout, whenever helpful, as an illustrative and mterpretative instrument. 3. Positive and negative members — their meaning and use (a) as expressing both magnitude and one of two opposite directions or senses; (6) their graphic representation; (c) the fundamental opera- tions applied to them. 4. The equation — its use in solving problems : (a) Linear equations in one unknown — their solution and applica- tions. (6) Simple cases of quadratic equations when arising in connection with formulas and problems. (c) Equations in two unknowns, with numerous concrete illustra- tions. ([ear: Intuitive geometry, simple formulas, elementary principles of statistics^ arithmetic (as in plan A). Second year: Intuitive geometry, algebra, arithmetic. Third year: Geometry, numerical trigonometry, arithmetic. I MATHEMATICS FOR YEARS 7-9. 25 2. Schools organized on the 8-4 plan. — It can not be too strongly emphasized that, in the case of the older and at present more prev- alent plan of the 8-4 school organization, the work in mathematics of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades should also be organized to include the material here suggested. The prevailing practice of devoting the seventh and eighth grades almost exclusively to the study of arithmetic is generally recognized as a wasteful marking of time. It is mainly in these years that American children fall behind their European brothers and sisters. No essentially new arithmetical principles are taught in these years, and the attempt to apply the previously learned principles to new situations in the more advanced business and economic aspects of arithmetic is doomed to failure on account of the fact that the situations in question are not and can not be made real and signifi- cant to pupils of this age. We need only refer to what has already been said in this chapter on the subject of problems. The same principles should govern the selection and arrangement of material in mathematics for the seventh and eighth grades of a grade school as govern the selection for the corresponding grades of a junior high school, with this exception : Under the 8-4 form of organ- ization many pupils will leave school at the end of the eighth year. This fact must receive due consideration. The work of the seventh and eighth years should be so planned as to give the pupils in these grades the most valuable mathematical information and training that they are capable of receiving in those years, with little reference to courses that they may take in later years. As to possibilities for arrangement, reference may be made to the plans given above for the first two years of the junior high school. When the work in mathematics of the seventh and eighth grades has been thus reor- ganized, the work of the first year of a standard foiu*-year high school should complete the program suggested. Finally, there must be considered the situation in those four-year liigh schools in which the pupils have not had the benefit of the reor- ganized instruction recommended for grades seven and eight. It may be hoped that this situation will be only temporary, although it must be recognized, that owing to a variety of possible reasons Qack of adequately prepared teachers in grades seven and eight, lack of suitable text books, administrative inertia, and the Uke), the new plans will not be immediately adopted and that therefore, for some years, many high schools will have to face the situation implied. In planning the work of the ninth grade under these conditions teachers and administrative officers should again be guided by the principle of giving the pupils the most valuable mathematical infor- mation and training which they are capable of receiving in this year with little reference to future courses which the pupil may or may 1 26 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION. not take. It is to be assumed that the work of this year is to be required of all pupils. Since for many this will constitute the last of their mathematical instruction, it should be so planned as to give them the widest outlook consistent with sound scholarship. Under these conditions it would seem desirable that the work of the ninth grade should contain both algebra and geometry. It is, therefore, recommended that about two-thirds of the time be devoted to the most useful parts of algebra, including the work on numerical trigonometry, and that about one-third of the time be devoted to geometry, including the necessary informal introduction and, if feasible, the first part of demonstrative geometry. It should be clear that owing to the greater maturity of the pupils much less time need be devoted in the ninth grade to certain topics of intuitive geometry (such as direct measurement, for example) than is desirable when dealing with children in earlier grades. Even under the conditions presupposed pupils will be acquainted with most of the fimdamental geometric forms and with the mensuration of the most important plane and -solid figures. The work in geometry in the ninth grade can then properly be made to center about indirect measure- ment and the idea of similarity (leading to the processes of numerical trigonometry), and such geometric relations as the sum of the angles of a triangle, the Pythagorean proposition, congruence of triangles, parallel and perpendicular lines, quadrilaterals and the more impor- tant simple constructions. Chapter IV. MATHEMATICS FOR YEARS TEN, ELEVEN, AND TWELVE. I. INTRODUCTION. The committee has in the preceding chapter expressed its judg- ment that the material there recommended for the seventh, eighth, and ninth years should be required of all pupils. In the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth years, however, the extent to which elections of subjects is permitted will depend on so many factors of a general character that it seems unnecessary and inexpedient for the present committee to urge a positive requirement beyond the minimum one already referred to. The subject must, like others, stand or fall on its intrinsic merit or on the estimate of such merit by the authorities responsible at a given time and place. The committee believes nev- ertheless that every standard high school should not merely offer courses in mathematics for the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth years, but should encourage a large proportion of its pupils to take them. Apart from the intrinsic interest and great educational value of the study of mathematics, it will in general be necessary for those pre- paring to enter college or to engage in the nimierous occupations involving the use of mathematics to extend their work beyond the minimum requirement. The present chapter is intended to suggest for students in general courses the most valuable mathematical training that will appro- priately follow the courses outlined in the previous chapter. Under present conditions most of this work vriJl normally fall in the last three years of the high school; that is, in general, in the tenth, elev- enth, and twelfth years. The selection of material is based on the general principles formu- lated in Chapter II. At this point attention need be directed only to the following : 1. In the years under consideration it is proper that some attention be paid to the students' vocational or other later educational needs. 2. The material for these years should include as far as possible those mathematical ideas and processes that have the most impor- tant applications in the modem world. As a result, certain material will naturally be included that at present is not ordinarily given in secondary-school courses; as, for instance, the material concerning the calculus. On the other hand, certain other material that is now 68867**— 21 3 27 28 MATHEMATICS XN SECONDARY EDUCATION. included in college entrance requirements will be excluded. The results of an investigation made by the national committee in con- nection with a study of these requirements indicates that modifica- tions to meet these changes will be desirable from the standpoint of both coUege and secondary school (see Ch. V). 3. During the years now under consideration an increasing amount of attention should be paid to the logical organization of the material, with the piu'pose of developing habits of logical memory, apprecia- tion of logical structure, and abihty to organize material effectively. It can not be too strongly emphasized that the broadening of con- tent of high-school courses in mathematics suggested in the present and in previous chapters will materially increase the usefulness of these courses to those who pursue them. It is of prime importance that educational administrators and others charged with the advising of students should take careful account of this fact in estimating the relative importance of mathematical courses and their alternatives. The number of important applications of mathematics in the activi- ties of the world is to-day very lai^e and is increasing at a very rapid rate. This aspect of the progress of civilization has been noted by all observers who have combined a knowledge of mathematics with an alert interest in the newer developments in other fields. It was revealed in very illuminating fashion during the recent war by the insistent demand for persons with varying degrees of mathematical training for many war activities of the first moment. If the same effort were made in time of peace to secure the highest level of effi- ciency available for the specific tasks of modern life, the demand for those trained in mathematics would be no less insistent; for it is in no wise true that the applications of mathematics in modem warfare are relatively more important or more numerous than its appUcations in those fields of human endeavor which are of a constructive nature. There is another important point to be kept in mind in considering the relative value to the average student of mathematical and various alternative courses. If the student who omits the mathe- matical courses has need of them later, it is almost invariably more difficult, and it is frequently impossible, for him to obtain the train- ing in which he is deficient. In the case of a considerable number of alternative subjects a proper amount of reading in spare hours at a more mature age will ordinarily furnish him the. approximate equiv- alent to that which he would have obtained in the way of infor- mation in a high-school course in the same subject. It is not, how- ever, possible to make up deficiencies in mathematical training in so simple a fashion. It requires systematic work under a compe- tent teacher to master properly the technique of the subject, and any break in the continuity of the work is a handicap for which increased matiurity rarely compensates. Moreover, when the indi- MATHEMATICS FOR YEARS 10-12. 29 vidual discovers his need for further mathematical training it is usually difficult for him to take the time from his other activities for systematic work in elementary mathematics. II. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ELECTIVE COURSES. The following topics are recommended for inclusion in the mathe- matical electives open to pupils who have satisfactorily completed the work outlined in the preceding chapter, comprising arithmetic, the elementary notions of algebra, intuitive geometry, niunerical trigonometry, and a brief introduction to demonstrative geometry. 1. Plane demonstrative geometry, — The principal purposes of the instruction in this subject are: To exercise further the spatial imagi- nation of the student, to make him fcftniliar with the great basal propositions- and their applications, to develop understanding and appreciation of a deductive proof and the ability to use this method of reasonijig where it is applicable and to form habits of precise and succLQct statement, of the logical organization of ideas, and of logical memory. Enough time should be spent on this subject to accom- plish these purposes. The following is a suggested list of topics under which the work bi demonstrative geometry may be organized:* (a) Congruent triangles, perpendicular bisectors, bisectors of angles; (b) arcs, angles, and chords in circles; (c) parallel lines and related angles, parallelograms; (d) the sum of the angles for triangle aud polygon; (f) secants and tangents to circles with related angles, regular polygons; (/) similar triangles, similar figures; ig) areas; numerical computation of lengths and areas, based upon geometric theorems already estabhshed. Under these topics constructions, loci, areas, and other exercises are to be included. It is recommended that the formal theory of limits and of incom- mensurable cases be omitted, but that the ideas of limit and of incommensurable magnitudes receive informal treatment. It is believed that a more frequent use of the idea of motion in the demonstration of theorems is desirable, both from the point of view of gaining greater insight and of saving time.^ If the great basal theorems are selected and effectively organized into a logical system, a considerable reduction (from 30 to 40 per cent) can be made in the number of theorems given either in the Harvard list or in the report of the Committee of Fifteen. Such a reduction' is exhibited in the lists prepared by the committee and ' It is not Intended that the order here given should imply an\'^thing as to the order of presentation. (See also Ch. VI.) s Reference may here he made to the treatment given in recent French texts such as those by Bourlet and Mdray. 30 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION. printed later in this report (Ch. VI). In this connection it may be suggested that more attention than is now customary may profitably be given to those methods of treatment which make consistent use of the idea of motion (already referred to), continuity (the tangent as the limit of a secant, etc.) 9 symmetry, and the dependence of one geometric magnitude upon another. If the student has had a satisfactory course in intuitive geometry and some work in demonstration before the tenth grade, he may find it possible to cover a minimum course in demonstrative geometry, giving the great basal theorems and constructions, together with exercises, in the 90 periods constituting a half year's work. 2. Algebra. — (a) Simple functions of one variable: Numerous illustrations and problems involving linear, quadratic, and other simple functions including formulas from science and common life. More difficult problems in variation than those included in the earlier course. (6) Equations in one unknown: Various methods for solving a quadratic equation (such as factoring, completing the square, use of formula) should be given. In connection with the treatment of the quadratic a very brief discussion of complex niunbers should be in- cluded. . Simple cases of the graphic solution of equations of degree higher than the second should be discussed and applied. (c) Equations in two or three imknowns: The algebraic solution of linear equation in two or three unknowns and the graphic solu- tion of linear equations in two unknowns should be given. The graphic and algebraic solution of a linear and a quadratic equation and of two quadratics that contain no first degree term and no xy term should be included. (d) Exponents, radicals and logarithms: The definitions of nega- tive, zero and fractional exponents should be given, and it should be made clear that these definitions must be adopted if we wish such exponents to conform to the laws for positive integral exponents. Reduction of radical expressions to those involving fractional ex- ponents should be given as well as the inverse transformation. The rules for performing the fundamental operations on expressions involving radicals, and such transformations as 1 _ a ai'}/b—'y/c) V^6=g-V«&«-s ya-h-^ayb, 7^+^^ — h^c — should be included. In close connection with the work on exponents and radicals there should be given as much of the theory of log- arithms as is involved in their application to computation and suffi- cient practice in their use in computation to impart a fair degree of facility. MATHEMATICS FOB YEABS 10^12. 81 (e) Aritlnnetic and geometric progressions: The formulas for the nth term and the smn of n terms should be derived and applied to significant problems. (/) Binomial theorem: A proof for positive integral exponents should be given; it may also be stated that the formula applies to the case of negative and fractional exponents imder suitable restric- tions, and the problems may include the use of the formula in these cases as well as in the case of positive integral exponents. 3. Sdid geometry. — ^The aim of the work in solid geometry should be to exercise further the spatial imagination of the student and to give him both a knowledge of the fimdamental spatial relationships and the power to work with them. It is felt that the work in plane geometry gives enough training in logical demonstration to warrant a shifting of emphasis in the work on solid geomet^ away from this aspect of the subject and in the direction of developing greater facility in visualizing spatial relations and figures, in representing such figures on paper, and in solving problems in mensuration. For many of the practical applications of mathematics it m of fundamental importance to have accurate space perceptions. Hence it would seem wise to have at least some of the work in solid geometry come as early as possible in the mathematical courses, preferably not later than the beginning of the eleventh school year. Some schools will find it possible and desirable to introduce the more ele- mentary notions of solid geometry in connection with related ideas of plane geometry. The work in solid geometry should include numerous exercises in computation based on the formulas established. This will serve to correlate the work with arithmetic and algebra and to furnish prac^ tice in computation. The following provisional outline of subject matter is submitted: / a. Propositions relating to lines and planes; and to dihedral and trihedral angles. h. Mensuration of the prism, pyramid, and frustum; the (right ^ circular) cylinder, cone and frustum, based on an informal ; treatment of limits; the sphere, and the spherical triangle. • e. Spherical geometry. d. Similar solids. Such theorems as are necessary as a basis for the topics here out- ' lined should be studied in immediate connection with them. Desirable simplification and generalization may be introduced into the treatment of mensuration theorems by employing such theorems as. Cavalieri's and Simpson's, and the Prismoid Formula; but rigorous proofs or derivations of these need not be included. 32 MATHEMATICS IN .SECONDARY EDUCATION. Beyond the range of the mensuration topics indicated above, it seems preferable to employ the. methods of the elementary calculus. (See section 6, below). It should be possible to complete a minimum course covering the topics outlined above in not more than one-third of a year. The list of propositions in soUd geometry given in Chapter VI should be considered in connection with the general principles stated at the beginning of this section. By requiring formal proofs to a more limited extent than has been customary, time will be gained to attain the aims indicated and to extend the range of geometrical information of the pupil. Care must be exercised to make sure that the pupil is thoroughly familiar with the facts, with the associated terminology, with all the necessary formulas, and that he secures the necessary practice in working with and applying the information acquired to concrete problems. 4. Trigonometry. — The work in elementary trigonometry begun in the earlier years should be completed by including the logarithmic solution of right and oblique triangles, radian measure, graphs of trigonometric fimctions, the derivation of the fundamental relations between the functions and their use in proving identities and in solving easy trigonometric equations. The use of the transit in con- nection with the simpler operations of surveying and of the sextant for some of the simpler astronomical observations, such as those involved in finding local time, is of value; but when no transit or sextant is available, simple apparatus for measuring angles roughly may and should be improvised. Drawings to scale should form an essential part of the numerical work in trigonometry. The use of the slide rule in computations requiring only three-place accuracy and in checking other computations is also recommended. 5. Elementary statistics. — Continuation of the earlier work to include the meaning and use of fundamental concepts and simple frequency distributions with graphic representations of various kinds and measures of central tendency (average, mode, and median) . 6. Elementary calcvlus. — The work should include: (a) The general notion of a derivative as a limit indispensable for the accurate expression of such fundamental quantities as velocity of a moving body or slope of a curve. (6) Applications of derivatives to easy problems in rates and in maxima and minima. (c) Simple cases of inverse problems; e. g., finding distance from velocity, etc. (d) Approximate methods of summation leading up to integra- tion as a powerful method of summation. (e) Applications to simple cases of motion, area, volume, and pressure. MATHEMATICS FOB YEARS 10-12. 38 Work in the calculus should be largely graphic and may be closely related to that in physics; the necessary technique should be reduced* to a minimuTn by basing it wholly or mainly on algebraic polynomials. No formal study of analytic geometry need be presupposed beyond the plotting of simple graphs. It is important to bear in mind that, while the elementary calculus is sufficiently easy, interesting, and valuable to justify its introduc- tion, special pains should be taken to guard against any lack of thoroughness in the fundamentals of algebra and geometry. No possible gain could compensate for a real sacrifice of such thorough- ness. It should also be borne in mind that the suggestion of including elementary calculus is not intended for all schools nor for all teachers or all pupils in any school. It is not intended to connect in any direct way with college entrance requirements. The future college student will have ample opportunity for calculus later. The' capa- ble boy or girl who is not to have the college work ought not on that account to be prevented from learning something of the use of this powerful tool. The applications of elementary calculus to simple concrete problems are far more abundant and more interesting than those of algebra. The necessary technique is extremely simple. The subject is commonly taught in secondary schools in England, France, and Germany, and appropriate English texts are available.' 7. History and biography, — Historical and biographical material should be used throughout to make the work more interesting and significant. 8. Additional dedives. — ^Additional electives such as mathematics of investmsTUj shop mathematics^ surveying and navigation, descriptive or projective geometry will appropriately be offered by schools which have special needs or conditions, but it seems unwise for the national committee to attempt to define them pending the results of further experience on the part of these schools. m. PLANS FOR ARRANGEMENT OF THE MATERIAL. In the majority of high schools at the present time the topics suggested can probably be given most advantageously as separate units of a three-year program. However, the national committee is of the opinion that methods of organization are being experi- mentally perfected whereby teachers will be enabled to present much of this material more effectively in combined courses unified by one or more of such central ideas, functionality and graphic representation. > Quoftatioa5 and typical problems from one of these texts will he found in a supplementary note appended to this chapter. 84 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDABY EDT7CATI0N. As to the arrangement of the material the committee givee below ' four plans which may be suggestive and helpful to teachers in arrang- ing their courses. No one of them is, however, recommended as superior to the others. PLAN A. Tenth year: Plane demonstrative geometry, algebra. Eleventh year: Statistics, trigonometry, solid geometry. Twelfth year: The calculus, other elective. PLAN B. Tenth year: Plane demonstrative geometry^ solid geometry. Eleventh year: Algebra, trigonometry, statistics. Twelfth year: The calculus, other elective. PLAN C. Tenth year: Plane demonstrative geometry, tri^nometry. Eleventh year: Solid geometry, algebra, statistics. Twelfth year: The calculus, otner elective. PLAN D. Tenth year: Algebra, statistics, trigonometry. Eleventh year: JPlane and soUd geometry. Twelfth year: The calculus, otiber elective. Additional information on ways of organizing this material will be foimd in Chapter XII on Mathematics in Experimental Schools. SUFPLEMBNTABT NOTE ON THB CALCULUS AS A HiGH-SCHOOL SUBJECT. In connection with the recommendations concerning the calculus, such questions as the following may arise: Why should a college subject like this be added to a high- school program? How can it be expected that high-school teachers will have the necessary training and attainments for teaching it? Will not the attempt to teach such a subject result in loss of thoroughness in earlier work? Will anything be gained beyond a mere smattering of the theory? Will the boy or girl ever use the information or training secured? The subsequent remarks are intended to answer such objections as these and to develop more fully the point of view of the committee in recommending the inclusion of elementary work in the calculus in the high-school program. By the calculus we mean for the present purpose a study of rates of change. In nature all things change. How much do they change in a given time? How fast do they change? Do they increase or decrease? When does a changing quantity become largest or smallest? How can rates of changing quantities be compared? These are some of the questions which lead us to study the elementary calculus. Without its essential principles these questions can not be answered with definiteness. The following are a few of the specific replies that might be given in answer to the questions listed at the beginning of this note: The difficulties of the college calculus lie mainly outside the boundaries of the proposed work. The elements of the subject present less difficulty than many topics now offered in advanced algebra. It is not implied that in the near future many secondary-school teachers will have any occasion to teach the elementary calculus. It is the culminating subject in a series which only relatively strong schools will complete and only then for a selected group of students. In such schools there should always be teachers competent to teach the elementary calculus here intended. No superficial study of calculus should be regarded as justifying any substantial sacrifice of thoroughness. * In the judgment of the committee the introduction of elementary calctdus necessarily includes sufficient HATHEMATIGS FOB YEABS 10-12. 36 algebra and geometry to compensate for whatever divendon of time from theee subjects would be implied. The calculus of the algebraic pol3niomiiial is so simple that a boy or girl who is capable of grasping the idea of limits of slope, and of velocity, may in a brief time gain an outlook upon the field of mechanics and other exact sciences, and acquire a fair degree of facility in using one of the most powerful tools of mathematics, together with the capacity for solving a number of interesting problems. Morever, the funda- mental ideas involved, quite aside from their technical applications, will provide valuable training in understanding and analyzing quantitative relations— and such training is of vialue to everyone. The following typical extracts from an English text intended for use in secondary schools may be quoted: " It has been said that the calculus is that branch of mathematics which schoolboys understand and senior wranglers fail to comprehend. * * * So long as the graphic treatment and practical applications of the calculus are kept in view, the subject is an extremely easy and attractive one. Boys can be taught the subject early in their mathematical career, and there is no part of their mathematical training that they enjoy better or which opens up to them wider fields of iiseful exploration. * * » The phenomena must first be known practically and then studied philosophically. To reverse the order of these processes is impossible. " The text in question, after an interesting historical sketch, deals with such problems as the following: A train is going at the rate of 40 miles an hour. Represent this graphically. At what rate is the length of the daylight increasing or decreasing on December 31, March 26, etc.? (From tabular data.) A cart going at the rate of 5 miles per hour passes a milestone, and 14 minutes after- wards a bicycle, going in the same direction at 12 miles an hour, passes the same milestone. Find when and where the bicycle will overtake the cart. A man has 4 miles of fencing wire and wishes to fence in a rectangxdar piece of prairie land through which a straight river flows, the bank of the stream being utilized as one side of the inclosure. How can he do this so as to inclose as much land as poflsible? A circular tin canister closed at both ends has a surface area of. 100 square centi- meters. Find the greatest volume it can contain. Post-office regulations prescribe that the combined length and girth of a parcel must not exceed 6 feet. Find the maximum volume of a parcel whose shape is a prism with the ends square. A pulley is fixed 15 feet above the ground, over which passes a rope 90 feet long with one end attached to a weight which can hang freely, and the other end is held by a man at a height of 3 feet from the ground. The man walks horizontally away from beneath the pulley at the rate of 3 feet per second. Find the rate at which the weight rises when it is 10 feet above the ground. The pressure on the surface of a lake due to the atmosphere is known to be 14 pounds per square inch. The pressure in the liquid x inches below the surface is known to be given by the law dp/(2rs0.036. Find the pressure in the liquid at a depth of 10 feet. The arch of a bridge is parabolic in form. It is 5 feet wide at the base and 5 feet high. Find the volimie of water that passes through per second in a flood when the water is rushing at the rate of 10 feet per second. A force of 20 tons compresses the spring buffer of a railway stop through 1 inch, and the force is always proportional to the compression produced. Find the work done by a train which compresses a pair of such stops through 6 inches. These may illustrate the aims and point of view of the proposed work. It will be noted that not all of them involve calculus, but those that do not lead up to it. Chapter V. COLLEGE ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS. The present chapter is concerned with a study of topics and train- ing in elementary mathematics that will have most value as prepara- tion for college work, and with recommendations of definitions of college-entrance requirements in elementary algebra and plane geometry. General considerations. — ^The primary purpose of college-entrance requirements is to test the candidate's ability to benefit by college instruction. This ability depends, so far as our present inquiry is concerned, upon (1) general intelligence, intellectual maturity and mental power; (2) specific knowledge and training required as prepa- ration for the various courses of the college curriculum. Mathematical ability appears to be a sufficient but not a necessary condition for general intelligence.^ For this, as well as for other reasons, it would appear that coUege-entrance requirements in maihs" maiics shovld be formulated primarily on the basis of the special knowU- edge and training required for the successful study of courses which the student wiU take in college. The separation of prospective college students from the others in the early years of the secondary school is neither feasible nor desirable. Jt is therefore. obvious that secondary-school courses in mathematics can not be planned with specific reference to college-entrance require- ments. Fortimately there appears to be no real conflict of interest between those students who ultimately go to college and those who do not, so far as mathematics is concerned. It will be made clear in what foUows that a course in this subject, covering from two to two and one-half years in a standard four-year high school, and so planned as to give thjB most valuable mathematical training which the student is capable of receiving, will provide adequate preparation for college work. Topics to be included in high-school courses. — In the selection of material of instruction for high-school courses in mathematics, its value as preparation for college courses in mathematics need not be specifically considered. Not all college students study mathematics; it is therefore reasonable to expect college departments in this sub- 1 A recent investigation made by the department of psychology at Dartmouth College showed that all students of high rank in mathematics had a high rating on general intelligenoe; the converse was not tnw, however. 36 COLLEGE ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS. 37 ject to adjust themselves to the previous preparation of their stu- dents. Nearly all college students do, however, study one or more of the physical sciences (astronomy, physics, chemistry) and one or more of the social sciences (history, economics, political science, soci- ology). Entrance requirements must therefore insure^ adequate mathematical preparation in these subjects. Moreover, it may be assumed that adequate preparation for these two groups of subjects will be sufficient for all other subjects for which the secondary schools may be expected to furnish the mathematical prerequisites. The national committee recently conducted an investigation for the purpose of securing information as to the content of high-school courses of instruction most desirable from the point of view of prepa- ration for coDege work. A number of college teachers, prominent in their respective fields, were asked to assign to each of the topics in the following table an estimate of its value as preparation for the ele- mentary courses in their respective subjects. Table I gives a sum- mary of the replies, arranged in two groups — *' Physical sciences," including astronomy, physics, and chemistry; and ''Social sciences," including history, economics, sociology, and political science. The high value attached to the following topics is significant: Simple formulas — their meaning and use; the linear and quadratic functions and variation; numerical trigonometry; the use of loga- rithms and other topics relating to numerical computation; statis- tics. These all stand well above such standard requirements as arithmetic and geometric progression, binomial theorem, theory of exponents, simultaneous equations involving one or two quadratic equations, and literal equations. These results would seem to indicate that a modification of present college-entrance requirements in mathematics is desirable from the point of view of college teachers in departments other than mathe- matics. It is interesting to note how closely the modifications suggested by this inquiry correspond to the modifications in secondary- school mathematics foreshadowed by the study of needs of the high- school pupil irrespective of his possible future college attendance. The recommendations made in Chapter II that functional relation- ship be made the ''underlying -principle of the course," that the meaning and use of simple formulas be emphasized, that more atten- tion be given to numerical computation (especially to the methods relating to approximate data), and that work on numerical trigo- nometry and statistics be included, have received widespread ap- proval throughout the country. That they should be in such close accord with the desires of college teachers in the fields of physical and social sciences as to entrance requirements is striking. We find here the justification for the belief expressed earher in this report that there is no real conflict between the needs of students who ultimately go to college and those who do not. 38 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION. Table 1. — Value of topics as preparation for elementary college courses. (In the headings of the table, E-essentiid. C-of considerable vahie, S— of some yahie, 0» of little or no value, N» number of replies received. The figures in the first four colunms of each group are peroent- ages of the number of replies received.] Negative numbers— their meaning and use Imaginary numbers— their meaning and use Simple formulas— their meaning and use Graphic representation of statistical data Graphs (mathematical and empirical): (a) As a method of representing dependence lb) As a method of SMvLng problems TheUnear function, y — inx+6 The q uadratic function, y « ] ^Linear equations in one unknown Simple formulas— tiieir meaning and use ^Ratio and proportion ♦Negative numbers— their meaning and use ♦Quadratic equations in one unknown The linear function: y— mx+b ♦Simultaneous linear equations in two unknowns Numerical trigonomeUT— the use of the sine, cosine, and tangent in the solution of simple problems involving right triangles ♦Pemonstrative geometry L^se of logarithms in computation ♦Graphs as a meUiod of representing dependence Ck>mputation with appro^umate data— rational use of significant figures The quadratic function: y— oi*+fti+f Plane trigonometry —usu al course Graphic representation of statistical data Statistics— meaning and use of elementary concepts Variation Statistica— frequency distributions and curves ♦Graphic soluuon of problems. ♦Lit^Bl equations. ♦Simultaneous linear equations In more than 2 unknowns ♦Simultaneous equations, one quadratic^ one linear ♦Theory of exponents ♦ Binomial theorem. Analytic geometry of the straight hne Thewy oflogarithms Statistics— correlation Analytic geometry— fundamental conoeptions ♦Simultaneous quadratic equations Analytic geometry of the circle Short-cut methods of computation Use oftablesm computation (other than logarithms') Use of slide rule Imaginary numbers ♦ A rithme tic progression ♦Geometric progression Probability Conic sections ^ Polar coordinates Empirical curves and fitting curves to observations Equations ofhigtier degree than the second E. E+C. 98 100 93 98 Si 92 79 84 78 93 78 92 71 95 68 89 «8 83 62 . 91 62 78 61 97 69 80 67 84 67 82 55 91 60 63 47 80 45 65 43 61 43 72 40 6i 86 67 35 67 34 71 34 60 33 80 32 77 31 50 29 72 29 65 24 69 24 63 24 41 23 52 23 48 20 55 18 50 IS 44 12 50 10 a * The list Includes all the requirements of the college entrance examination board except those relating to algebraic tedmique. The topic of "Negative numbers" has also been given an asterisk, as it is clearly implied, tfaoi^g^ not ezpUdUy mentioned, in the C. E. E. B. definitions. • The attitude of the colleges. — Mathematical instruction in this coun- try is at present in a period of transition. While a considerable num- ber of our most progressive schools have for several years given courses embodying most of the recommendations contained in Chap- ters II, III, and rV of the present report, the large majority of schools are still continuing the older types of courses or are only just beginning to introduce modifications. The movement toward reor- ganization is strong, however, throughout the country, not only in the standard four-year high schools but also in the newer junior high schools. During this period of transition it should be the policy of the col- leges, while exerting a desirable steadying influence, to help the movement toward a sabe reorganization. In particular they should take care not to place obstacles in the way of changes which are 40 MATHEMATICS UT SECONDARY EDUCATION. clearly in the interest of more eflFective college preparation, as well as of better general education. College-entrance requirements will continue to exert a powerful influence on secondary-school teaching. Unless they reflect the spirit of soimd progressive tendencies, they will constitute a serious obstacle. In the present chapter revised definitions of college-entrance re- quirements in plane geometry and elementary algebra are presented. So far as plane geometry is concerned, the problem of definition is comparatively simple. The proposed definition of the requirement in plane geometry does not differ from the one now in effect under the college entrance examination board. A list of propositions and constructions has however been prepared, and is given in the next chapter for the guidance of teachers and examiners. In elementary algebra a certain amount of flexibility is obviously necessary both on account of the quantitative differences among col- leges and of the special conditions attending a period of transition. The former differences are recognized by the proposal of a minor and a major requirement in elementary algebra. The second of these includes the first and is intended to correspond with the two-unit rating of the C. E. E. B. In connection with this matter of units, the committee wishes par- ticularly to disclaim any emphasis upon a special number of years or hours. The unit terminology is doubtless too well established to be entirely ignored in formulating college-entrance requirements, but the standard definition of unit ' has never been precise, and will now become much less so with the inclusion of the newer six-year pro- gram. A time allotment of 4 or 5 hours per week in the seventh year can certainly not have the same weight as the same number of hours in the twelfth year, and the disparity will vary with different sub- jects. What is really important is the amount of subject matter and the quality of work done in it. The "unif can not be anything but a crude approximation to this. The distribution of time in the school program should not be determined by any arbitrary unit scale. As a further means of securing reasonable flexibility, the commit- tee recommends that for a limited time — say five years — the option be offered between examinations based on the old and on the new definitions, so far as differences between them may make this desirable. In view of the changes taking place at the present time in mathe- matical courses in secondary schools, and the fact that college-entrance ' The foUowing definltiaii, formulated by the National Committee on Standards of Colleges and Secondary Schools, has been given the approval of the C. E. E. B. "A unit represents a year's study in any subject in a secondary school, constituting approximately a quarter of a full year's work. A four-year secondary school curriculum should be regarded as representing not more than 16 units of woric." COUjEGE entrance BEQXnBEMENTS. 41 .requirements should so soon as possible reflect desirable changes and assist in their adoption, the national conunittee recommends that either the American Mathematical Society or the Mathematical Asso- ciation of America (or both) maintain a permanent committee on coU^e-entrance requirements in mathematics, such a committee to work in close cooperation with other agencies which are now or may in the future be concerned in a responsible way with the relations between colleges and secondary schools. DEFINITION OF COLLEGE ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS. ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA. Minor requirement. — ^The meaning, use, and evaluation (including the necessary transformations) of simple formulas involving ideas with which the student is familiar and the derivation of such formulas from rules expressed in words. The dependence of one variable upon another. Numerous illus- trations and problems involving the linear function y—mx+h. Illustrations and problems involving the quadratic function y = Jcx^. The graph and graphic representations in general; their construc- tion and interpretation, including the representation of statistical data and the use of the graph to exhibit dependence. Positive and negative numbers; their meaning and use. Linear equations in one unknown quantity; their use in solving problems. Sets of Unear equations involving two unknown quantities; their use in solving problems. Ratio, as a case of simple fractions; proportion without the theorems on alternation, etc.; and simple cases of variation. The essentials of ^Jgebraic technique. This should include — (a) The four fundamental operations. (h) Factoring of the following types : Common factors of the terms of a polynomial; the difference of two squares; trinomials of the second degree (including the square of a binomial) that can be easily factored by trial. (c) , Fractions, including complex fractions of a simple type. (d) Exponents and radicals. The laws for positive integral ex- ponents; the meaning and use of fractional exponents, but not the formal theory. The consideration of radicals may be confined to the simplification of expressions of the form ^/a^b and -^ajb and to the evaluation of simple expressions involving the radical sign. A process for extracting the square root of a number should be included but not the process for extracting the square root of a polynomial. 42 MATHEMATICS VST SECOKDABT EDUCATION. Numerical trigonometry. The use of the sme, cosine, and tangent in solving right triangles. The use of three or four place tables of natural fimctions. Major requirement. — ^In addition to the minor requirement as specified above, the following should be included: Illustrations and problems involving the quadratic function y — a^ + bx + c. Quadratic equations in one unknown; their use in solving prob- lems. Exponents and radicals. 2jero and negative exponents, and more extended treatment of fractional exponents. RationaUzing denom- inators. Solution of simple types of radical equations. The use of logarithmic tables in computation without the formal theory. Elementary statistics, including a knowledge of the fundamental concepts and simple frequency distributions, with graphic repre- sentations of various kinds. The binomial theorem for positive integral exponents less than 8; with such applications as compound interest. The formula for the nth term, and the sum of n terms, of arithmetic and geometric progressions, with appUcations. Simultaneous linear equations in three unknown quantities and simple cases of simultaneous equations involving one or two quad- ratic equations; their use in solving problems. Drill in algebraic manipulation should be limited, particularly in the minor requirement, by the purpose of securing a thorough under- standing of important principles and facility in carrying out those processes which are fundamental and of frequent occurrence either in common life or in the subsequent courses that a substantial pro- portion of the pupils will study. Skill in manipulation must be conceived of throughout as a means to an end, not as an end in itself. Within these limits, skill and accuracy in algebraic technique are of prime importance, and drill in this subject should be extended far enough to enable students to carry out tiie fundamentally essential processes accurately and with reasonable speed. The consideration of literal equations, when they serve a significant purpose, such as the transformation of formulas, the derivation of a general solution (as of the quadratic equation), or the proof of a theorem, is important^ As a means for drill in algebraic technique they should be used sparingly. The solution of problems should offer opportimity throughout the course for considerable arithmetical and computational work. The conception of algebra as an extension of arithmetic should be made significant both in numerical applications and in elucidating algebraic COLLEGE ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS. 43 piinciples. Emphasis should be placed upon the use of common sense and jtidfi^ment in computing from approximate data, especially with regard Z th. number of ^res retJLd, and on the necessity for checking the results. The use of tables to fadhtate computation (such as tables of squares and square roots, of interest, and of trigo- nometrie functions) should be encouraged. PLANE GEOMETRY. The usual theorems and constructions of good textbooks, including the general properties of plane rectilinear figures; the circle and the measurement of angles; similar polygons; areas; regular polygons alxd the measurement of the circle. The solution of numerous original, exercises, including locus problems. Applications to the mensuration of Hnes and plane surfaces. The scope of the required work in plane geometry is indicated by the List of Fundamental Propositions and Constructions; which is given in the next chapter. This list indicates in Section I the type of proposition which, in the opinion of the committee, may be assumed without proof or given informal treatment. Section II contains 52 propositions and 19 constructions which are regarded as so funda- mental that they should constitute the common minimum of all standard courses in plane geometry. Section III gives a list of sub- sidiaary theorems which suggests the type of additional propositions that should be included in such courses. CoUege-eTitrance examinations. — College-entrance examinations exert in many schools, and especially throughout the eastern section of the country, an influence on secondary school teaching which is very far- reaching. It is, therefore, well within the province of the national committee to inquire whether the prevailing type of examination in mathematics serves the best interests of mathematical education and of college preparation. The reason for the almost controlling influence of entrance exami- nation^ in the schools referred to is readily recognized. Schools sending students to such colleges for men as Harvard, Yale, and Princeton, to the larger colleges for women, or to any institution where examinations form the only or prevailing mode of admission, inevitably direct their instruction toward the entrance examination. This remains true even if only a small percentage of the class intends to take these examinations, the point being that the success of a teacher is often measured by the success of his or her students in these examinations. In the judgment of the committee, the prevailing type of entrance examination in algebra is primarily a test of the candidate's skill in 68867**— 21 1 44 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION. formal manipulation, and not an adequate test of his understanding or of his ability to apply the principles of the subject. Moreover, it is quite generally felt that the difficulty and complexity of the formal manipulative questions, which have appeared on recent papers set by colleges and by such agencies as the College Entrance Examination Board, has often been excessive. As a result, teachers preparing pupils for these examinations have inevitably been led to devote an excessive amount of time to drill in algebraic technique, without insuring an adequate understanding of the principles involved. Far from providing the desired facility, this practice has tended to impair it. For ''practical skill, modes of effective technique, can be intelli- gently, nonmechanically used only when intelligence has played a part in their acquisition. '' (Dewey, How We Thinkj p. 52.) Moreover, it must be noted thdt authors and publishers of text- books are under strong pressure to make their content and distri- bution of emphasis conform to the prevailing type of entrance examination. Teachers in turn are too often unable to rise above the textbook. An improvement in the examinations in this respect will cause a corresponding improvement in textbooks and in teaching. On the other hand, the makers of entrance examinations in algebra cannot be held solely responsible for the condition described. Theirs is a most difficult problem. Not only can they reply that as long as algebra is taught as it is, examinations must be largely on technique,* but they can also claim with considerable force that technical facility is the only phase of algebra that can be fairly tested by an exam- ination; that a candidate can rarely do himself justice amid unfamil- iar surroundings and subject to a time limit on questions involving real thinking in applying principles to concrete situations ; and that we must face here a real limitation on the power of an examination to test attainment. Many, and perhaps most, teachers will agree with this claim. Past experience is on their side; no generally accepted and effective ''power test'' in mathematics has as yet been devised and, if devised, it might not be suitable for use xmder condi- tions prevailing during an entrance examination. But if it is true that the power of an examination is thus inevitably limited, the wisdom and fairness of using it as the sole means of admission to college is surely open to grave doubt. That many unqualified candidates are admitted under this system is not open to question. Is it not probable that many qualified candidates are at the same time excluded ? If the entrance examination is a fair test of manipulative skill only, should not the colleges use additional means for learning something about the candidate's other abilities and qualifications ? * The vicious circle is now complete. Algebra is taught mechaxucally because of the chanoter of the entrance examination; the examination, in order to be &ir, must conform to the character of the teaching. COLLEGE EKTBANGE REQUIBEMENTS. 45 Some teachers believe that an effective ''power test" in mathe- matics is possible. Efforts to devise such a test should receive every encouragement. In the meantime, certain desirable modifications of the prevailing type of entrance examinations are possible. The college entrance ex- amination board recently appointed a committee to consider this question and a conference ' on this subject was held by representa- tives of the college entrance examination board, members of the national conmxittee, and others. The following recommendations are taken from the report of the cfonmiittee just referred to : Fully one-third of the queetions should be based on topics of such fundamental imp<»rtance that they will have been thoroughly taught, carefuUy reviewed, and deeply impressed by effective drill. . . . They should be of such a degree of difficulty tnat any pupil of regular attendance, faithful application, and even moderate ability may be expected to answer them satisfactorily. There should be both simple and difficult questions testing the candidate's ability to apply the principles of the subject. The early ones of the easv questions should be really easy for the candidate of good average ability who can do a little thinking under the stress of an examination; but even these questions should have genuine scientific content. There should be a substantial question which will put the best candidates on their mettle, but which is not beyond the reach of a fair proportion of the really good can- didates. This question should test the normal workings of a well-trained mind. It should be capable of being thought out in the limited time of the examination. It should be a test of the candidate's grasp and insight — not a catch question or a question of unfamiliar character making extraordinary demands on the critical powers of the candidate, or one the solution of which depends on an inspiration. Above all, this question should lie near to the heart of the subject as all well-prepared candidates understand the subject. As a rule, a question should consist of a single part and be framed to test one thing — not pieced together out of several unrelated and perhaps unequally important parts. Each question should be a substantial test on the topic or topics wnich it repre- sents. It is, however, in the nature of the case imposslDle that all questions be of equal value. Care should be used that the examination be not too long. * * * The examiner should be content to ask questions on the important topics, so chosen that their answers will be fair to the candidate and instructive to the readers; and beyond this m^ely to sample the candidate's knowledge on the minor topics. The national committee suggests the following additional prin- ciples: The examination as a whole should, as far a practicable, reflect the principle that algebraic technique is a means to an end, and not an end in itself. Questions that require of the candidate skill in algebraic manipu- lation beyond the needs of actual application should be used very sparingly. An eflFort should be made. to devise questions which will fairly test the candidate's understanding of principles and his ability to apply them, while involving a minimum of manipulative complexity. * At thjs conlerenee the following vote was onanlmously passed: ''Voted, that the results of examlna- tions (of the ooUege entrance examination board), be reported by letters A, B, C, D, E and that the definition of the groups represented by these letters should be determined in each year by the distribution of ability in a standard group of papers representing widely both public and private sdiools." 46 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDABT EDUCATION. The examinations in geometry should be definitely constructed to test the candidate's ability to draw valid conclusions rather than his ability to memorize an argument. A chapter on mathematical terms and symbols is included in this report. ^ It is hoped that examining bodies wUl be guided by the recommendations there made relative to the use of terms and symbols in elementary mathematics. The college entrance examination board, early in 1921, appointed a commission to recommend such revisions as might seem necessary in the definitions of the requirements in the various subjects of elementary mathematics. The recommendations contained in the present chapter have been laid before this commission. It is hoped that the commission's report, when it is finally made eflfective by action of the college entrance examination board and the various colleges concerned, will give impetus to the reorganization of the teaching of elementary mathematics along the lines recommended in the report of the national committee. • SeeCh. VIU. Chapter VI. LISTS OF PROPOSITIONS IN PLANE AND SOLID GEOMETRY. General hdsia of the selection of material. — ^The subcommittee ap- pointed to prepare a list of basal propositions made a careful study of a number of widely used textbooks on geometry. The bases of selection of the propositions were two: (1) The extent to which the propositions and corollaries were used in subsequent proofs of im- portant propositions and exercises; (2) the value of the propositions in ccmipleting important pieces of theory. Although the list of theorems and problems is substantially the same ill nearly all text- books in general use in this country, the wording, the sequence, and the methods of proof vary to such an extent as to render difficult a definite statement as to the number of times a proposition is used in the several books examined. A tentative table showed, however, less variation than might have been anticipated. Classification of propositions. — The classification of propositions is not the same in plane geometry as in solid geometry. This is partly due to the fact that it is generally felt that the student should limit his construction work to figures in a plane and in which the com- passes and straight edge are sufficient. The propositions have been divided as follows : Plane geometry: I. Assumptions and theorems for informal treat* ment; II. Fundamental theorems and constructions: A. Theorems, B. Constructions; III. Subsidiary theorems. Solid geometry: I. Fundamental theorems; II. Fundamental prop- ositions in mensuration; III. Subsidiary theorems; IV. Subsidiary propositions in mensuration. PLANE GEOMETBT. I. Assumptions ana (heorems lor inforw/d treatment. — This list contains propositions which may be assumed without proof (postu- lates), and theorems which it is permissible to treat informally. Some of these propositions will appear as definitions in certain methods of treatment. Moreover, teachers should feel free to require formal proofs in certain cases, if they desire to do so. The precise wording given is not essential, nor is' the order in which the proposi- tions are here listed. The list should be taken as representative of 47 48 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION. the type of propositions which may be assumed, or treated informalLj, rather than as exhaustive. 1. Through two distinct points it is possible to draw one straight line, and only one. 2. A line segment may be produced to any desired length. 3. The shortest path between two points is the line segment joining them. 4. One and only one perpendicular can be drawn through a given point to a given strai^t line. 5. The shortest distance from a point to a line is the perpendicular distance from the point to the Line. 6. From a given center and with a given radius one and only one circle can be de- scribed in a plane. 7. A straignt line intersects a circle in at most two points. 8. Any figure may be moved from one place to another without changing its shape or size. 9. All right angles are eaual. 10. If the sum of two adjacent angles equals a straight angle, their exterior sides form a straight line. 11. Equal angles have equal complements and equal supplements. 12. Vertical angles are equal. 13. Two lines perpendicular to the same line are parallel. 14. Through a given point not on a given straight line, one straight line, and only one, can be drawn parallel to the given line. 15. Two lines parallel to the same line are parallel to each other. 16. The area of a rectangle is equal to its base times its altitude. II. Fundamental theorems and constructions. — It is recommended that theorems and constructions (other than originals) to be proved on college entrance examinations be chosen from the following list. Originals and other exercises should be capable of solution by direct reference to one or more of these propositions and constructions. It should be obvious that any course in geometry that is capable of giving adequate training must include considerable additional material. The order here given is not intended to signify anything as to the order of presentation. It should be clearly understood that certain of the statements contain two or more theorems, and that the precise word- *ing is not essential. The committee favors entire freedom in state- ment and sequence. A. THEOREMS. 1. Two triangles are congruent if ^ (a) two sides and the included angle of one are equal, respectively, to two sides and the included angle of the other; (&) two angles and a side of one are equal, respectively, to two angles and the corresponding side of the other; (c) the three sides of one are equal, respectively, to the tnree sides of the other. 2. Two right triaJigleB are congruent if the hypotenuse and one other side of one are equal, respectively^ to the hypotenuse and another side of the other. 3. If two sides of a tnangle are equal , the angles opposite these sides are equal; and conversely.^ 4. The locus of a point (in a plane) equidistant from two given points is the perpen- dicular bisector of tne line segment joining them. 1 Teachers should feel free to separate this theorem into three distinct theorems and to use other phrase- ology for any such proposition. For example, In 1, ** Two triangles are equal if'' * * * "a triangle is determined by * * *," etc. Similarly in 2, the statement might read: "Two right triangles are con- gnient if, beside the right angles, any two parts (not both angles) in the one are equal to corresponding parts of the other." * It should be understood that the converse of a theorem need not be treated in connection with the theorem itself, it being sometimes better to treat it later. Furthermore a converse may occasionally be accepted as true in an elementary course, if the necessity for proof is made clear. The proof may theo bo given later. PROPOSITIONS IN GEOMETRY. 49 5. The locus of a point equidistant from two given interaectlDg lines is the pair of Unee bisecting tiie angles formed by these lines. 6. When a transversal cuts two parallel lines, the alternate interior angles are equal; and conversely. 7. The sum of the angles of a triangle is two right aneles. 8. A parallelogram is divided into congruent triangles by either diap>nal. 9. Any (convex) quadrilateral is a parallelogram (a) if the opposite sides are equal; (6) if two sides are equal and parallel. 10. If a series of parallel lines cut off equal segments on one transversal, they cut off equal sgnnents on any transversal. * 11. (a) The area of a parallelogram is equal to the base times the altitude. '6) The area of a triangle is equal to one-half the base times the altitude, c) The area of a trapezoid is equal to half the sum of its bases times its altitude. (a) The area of a regular polygon is equal to half the product of its apothem and perimeter. 12. (a) If a straight line is drawn through two sides of a triangle parallel to the third side, it aivides these sides proportionally. (b) If a line divides two sides of a triangle proportionally, it is parallel to the third aide. (Ihroofs for commensurable cases only.) (c) The se^ents cut off on two transversals by a smes of parallels are proportional. 13. Two tnangles are similar if (a) they have two angles of one equal, respectively, to two angles of the other; (6) they have an angle of one equal to an angle of the other and the including sides are proportional; (c) their sides are respectively proportional. 14. If two chonis intersect in a circle, the product of the segments of one is equal to the product of the segments of the other. 15. The perimeters of two similar polygons have the same ratio as any two corre- sponding sides. 16. Polygons are similar, if they can be decomposed into triangles which are simi- lar and similarly placed ; and conversely. 17. The bisector of an (interior or exterior) angle of a triangle divides the opposite Bide (produced if necessary) into segments proportional to the adjacent sides. 18. The areas of two similar triangles (or polygons) are to each other as the squares of any two corresponding sides. 19. In any right triangle ^e perpendicular from the vertex of the right angle on the hvpotenuse divides the triangle into two triangles each similar to the given triangle. 20. In a right triangle the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides. 21. In the same circle, or in equal circles, if two arcs are equal, their central angles are equal; and conversely. 22. In any circle angles at the center are proportional to their intercepted arcs. (Proof for commensurable case onl v. ) 23. In the same circle or in equal circles, if two chords are equal their corresponding arcs are equal; and conversely. 24. (a) A diameter perpendicular to a chord bisects the chord and the arcs of the chord. (6) A diameter wnich bisects a chord (that is not a diameter) is perpendicular to it. 25. The tangent to a circle at a given point is perpendicular to the radius at that point; and conversely. 26. In the same circle or in equal circles, equal chords are equally distant from the center; and conversely. 27. An angle inscribed in a circle is equal -to half the central angle having the same arc. 28. Angles inscribed in the same segment are equal. 29. If a circle is divided into equal arcs, the chords of these arcs form a reg[ular inscribed polygon and tangents at the points of division form a regular dicumscribed polygon. 30. The circumference of a circle is equal to 2irr, (Informal proof only.) 31.' The area of a circle is equal to ir^. (Informal proof omv.) The treatment of the mensuration of the circle should be based upon related theo- rems concerning regular polysons, but it should be informal as to the limiting processes involved. The aim shoula Be an understanding of the concepts involved, so far as the capacity of the pupil permits. * The total number of theorems given In this list wh«i separated, as will probably be formd advantageous in teartring this number including the oonverses indicated, is 52. 50 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDABT EDUCATION. B. CONSTRUCTIONS. 1. Bisect a line segment and draw the perpendicular bisector. 2. Bisect an angle. 3. Construct a perpendicular to a given line through a given point. 4. Construct an angle equal to a given angle. 5. Through a given point draw a straight line parallel to a given straight line. 6. Construct a triangle, given (a) the three sides; (6) two sides and the included angle; (c) two angles and tne included side. 7. JDivide a line segment into parts proportional to given segments. 8. Given an arc of a circle, find its center. 9. Circumscribe a circle about a triangle. 10. Inscribe a circle in a triangle. 11. Construct a tangent to a circle through a given point. 12. Construct the fourth proportional to mree given line se^ents. 13. Construct the mean proportional between two given line segments. 14. Construct a triangle (polygon) similar to a given triangle (polygon). 15. Construct a triangle e<}uai to a given polygon. 16. Inscribe a square in a circle. 17. Inscribe a regular hexagon in a circle. III. Subsidiary list of propositions. — The following list of propo- sitions is intended to suggest some of the additional material referred to in the introductory paragraph of Section II, It is not intended, however, to be exhaustive; indeed, the committee feels that teachers should be allowed considerable freedom in the selection of such additional material, theorems, corollaries, originals, exercises, etc., in the hope that opportimity will thus be afforded for constructive work in the development of courses in geometry. 1. When two lines are cut by a transveiBal, if the corresponding angles are equal, or if the interior angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary, the lines are parallel. 2. When a transversal cuts two parallel lines, the corresponding angles are equal, and the interior angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary. 3. A line perpendicular to one of two parallels is perpendicular to the other also. 4. If two angles have their sides respectively paraller or respectively perpendicular to each other, they are either equal or supplementary. 5. Any exterior angle of a triaoigle is equaJ to the sum of the two opposite interior angles. 0. The sum of the angles of a convex polygon of n aides is 2 (nr-2) right angles. 7. In any paraUelogram (a) the opposite sides are equal; (6) the opposite angles are eaual; (c) the diagonals bisect each other. 8. Anv (convex) quadrilateral is a paraUelogram, if (a) the opposite angles are equal; (6) the diagonals bisect each other. 9. The medians of a triangle intersect in a point which is two-thirds of the distance from the vertex to the mid-point of the opposite aide. 10. The altitudes of a triangle meet in a point. 11. The perpendicular bisectors of 'the sides of a triangle meet in a point. 12. The bisectors of the angles of a triangle meet in a point. 13. The tangents to a circle from an external point are equal. 14> (a) If two sides of a triangle are unequal, the greater side has the greater anele opposite it, and conversely. (6) If two sides of one triangle are equal respectively to two sides of another triangle, but the included angle of the first is greater than the included angle of the second, then the third side of the first is greater than the third side of the second, and con- versely. (c) If two chords are unequal, the greater is at the less distance from the center, and conversely. 4 Such inequality theorems as these are of importance in developing the notion of dependence or func- tionality in geometry. The fact that they are placed in the "Subsidiary list of propositions" should not Imply that they are considered of less educational value than those in List II. They are placed here beoatne they are not "fundamental " tn the same sense that the theorems of List II are fundamental. • PROPOSITIONS IS GBOMETBY. 61 • (d) The greater of two minor arcs has the greater chord, and conversely. 15. An angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle. 16. Parallel lines taneent to or cutting a circle intercept equal arcs on the circle. 17. An angle formed oy a tangent and a chord of a circle is measured by half the intercepted arc. 18. An angle formed by two intersecting chords is measured by half the sum of the intercepted arcs. 19. An angle formed by two secants or by two tangents to a.circle is measuied by half the difference between the intercepted arcs. 20. If from a point without circle a secant and a tangent are drawn, the tangent 18 the mean proportional between the whole secant and its external sespnent. 21. Parallelograms or triangles of equal bases and altitudes are equid. 22. The perimeters of two regular polygons of the same number of sides are to each other as their radii and also as their apothems. SOLID GEOMETRY. In the foUowing list the precise wording and the sequence are not considered: I. FT7NDAMENTAL THEOREMS. 1. If two planes meet, they intersect in a straight line. 2. If a line is perpendicuw to each of two intersecting lines at their point of inter- section it is perpendicular to the plane of the two lines. 3. Every perpendicular to a ^ven line at a given point lies in a plane perpen- dicular to the given line at the given point. 4. Through a given point (internal or external) there can pass one and only one perpendicular to a plane. 5. Two lines perpendicular to the same plane are parallel. 6. If two lines are parallel, every plane containing one of the lines and only one is parallel to the other. 7. Two planes perpendicular to the same Une are parallel. S. If two parallel planesarecutby a third plane, thelinesof intersection are parallel. 9. If two angles not in the same plane have their sides respectively parallel in the same sense, they are equal and their planes are parallel. 10. If two planes are perpendicular to each other, a line drawn in one of them perpendicular to their intersection is perpendicular to the other. 11. If a line is perpendicular to a given plane, every plane which contains this line 18 perpendicular to the given plane. 12. If two intersectiDg planes are each perpendicular to a third plane, their inter- section is also perpendicular to that plane. 13. The sections of a prism made by parallel planes cutting all the lateral edges are congruent polygons. 14. An oblique prism is equal to a right prism whose base is equal to a ri^t section of the oblique prism and whose altitude is equal to a lateral edge of the oblique prism. 15. The opposite faces of a parallelopiped are congruent. 16. The j^ane passed through two diagonally opposite edges of a parallelopiped divides the parallelepiped into two equal triangular prisms. 17. If a pyramid or a cone is cut by a plane piurallel to the base: fa) The lateral edges and the altitude are divided proportionally; lb) The section is a figure similar to the base; [e) The area of the section is to the area of the base as the square of the distance from the vertex is to the square of the altitude of the pyramid or cone. 18. Two triangular pyramids having equal bases ana equal altitudes are equal. 19. All points on a circle of a sphere are equidistant from either pole of the circle. 20. On any sphere a point whidi is at a quadrant's distance from each of two other points not the extremities of a diameter is a pole of the great circle passing through these two points. 21. If a plane is perpendicular to a radius at its extremity on a sphere, it is tangent to tiie sphere. 22. A sphere can be inscribed in or circumscribed about any tetrahedron. 23. If one spherical triangle is the polar of another, then reciprocally the second is the polar triangle of the first. 24. In two polar triangles each angle of either is the supplement of the opposite side of the other. 25. Two symmetric spherical triangles are equal. 62 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION. II. FUNDAMENTAL PROPOSITIONS IN MENSURATION. 26. The lateral area of a prism or a circular cylinder is ec^aal to the product of a lateral edge or element, respectively, by the perimeter of a right section. 27. The volume of a prism (incluaing any parallelepiped) or of a circular cylinder is equal to the product of its base by its altitude. 28. The lateral area of a regular pyramid or a right circular cone is equal to half the product of its slant height by the perimeter of its base. 29. The volume of i pyramid or a cone is equal to one-third the product of its base by its altitude. 30. The area of a sphere. 31. The area of a n}herical polygon. 32. The volume of a sphere. in. SUBSIDIARY THEOREMS. 33. If from an external point a perpendicular and oblic[ue8 are drawn to a plane, (a) the perpendicular is shorter than any oblique; (6) obliques meeting the plane at equal distances from the foot of the perpendicular are equal; (c) of two obliques meeting the plane at unequal distances from the foot of the perpendicular, the more remote is the longer. 34. If two lines are cut by three parallel planes, their corresponding segments are proportional. 35. Between two lines not in the same plane there is one common perpendicular, and onlv one. 36. The bases of a cylinder are congruent. 37. If a plane intersects a sphere, the line of intersection is a circle. 38. The volume of two tetrahedrons that have a trihedral angle of one equal to a trihedral angle of the other are to each other as the products of the three edges of these trihedral angles. 39. In any polyhedron the number of edges increased by two is equal to the number of vertices increased by the number of faces. 40. Two similar polyhedrons can be 8eparateon the other quantity or quantities in the formula. As a specific instance of such scientific formulas consider, for example, the force F, in pounds, with which a weight W^ in pounds, pulls outward on a string (centrifugal force) if the weight is revolved rapidly at a speed v, in feet per second, at the end of a string di length r feet. This force is given by the formula F= -^ — When such a formula is used the teacher should not be contented with the mere insertion of numerical values for W, v, and r to obtain a numeri- cal value for F. The advantage obtained from the study of such a formula lies quite as much in the recognition of the behavior of the force when one of the other quantities varies. Thus the student should be able to answer intelligently such questions as the following: If the weight is assumed to be twice as heavy, what is the effect upon the force ? Ji the speed is taken twice as great, what is the effect upon the force ? If the radius becomes twice as large, what is the effect upon the force? If the speed is doubled, what change in the weight would result in the same force ? Will an increase in the speed cause an increase or a decrease in the force ? Will an increase in the radius r cause an increase or a decrease in the force ? As another instance (of a more advanced character) consider the formula for the amount of a sum of money P, at compound interest at r per cent, at the end of n years. This amount may be denoted by An. Then we shall have An-=P (H-r)°. Will doubling P result in doubling Ani Will doubling n result in doubhng A^^i Since the compound interest that has accumulated is equal to the difference between P and il„, will the doubling of r double the interest? Compare the correct answers to these questions with the answers to the similar questions in the case of simple interest, in 56 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION. which the formula reads -4„ = P + Pm and in which the accumulated interest is simply Pm. The difference between such a study of the effect produced upon one quantity by changes in another and the mere substitution of numerical values will be apparent from these examples. 4. Formulas of pure algebra. — Formulas of pure algebra, such as that for (x+hy, will be better understood and appreciated if accom- panied by a discussion of the manner in Which changes in h cause changes in the total result. This can be accomplished by discussing such concrete reaUties as the error made in computing the area of a square field or of a square room when an error has been made in measurixig the side of the square. If x is the true length of the side, and if the student assumes various possible values for the error h made in measuring x, he will have a situation that involves some comprehension of the functional workings of the formula mentioned. The same formula relates to such problems as the change from one entry to the next entry in a table of squares. A similar situation, and a very important one, occurs with the pure algebraic formula for {x-\-a)(y-\-b). This formula may be said to jgovem the question of the keeping of significant figures in finding the product xy. For if a and 6 represent the uncertainty in x and y, respectively, the uncertainty in the product is given by this formula. The student has much to learn on this score, for the retention of meaningless figures in a product is one of the commonest mistakes of both student and teacher in computational work. Such formulas occur throughout algebra, and each of them will be illuminated by such a discussion. The formulas for arithmetic and geometric progression, for example, should be studied from a functional standpoint. 5. TaUes. — ^The uses of the functional idea in connection with numerical computation have already been mentioned in connectiop with the formula for a product. Work which appears on the surface to be wholly numerical may be of a distinctly functional character. Thus any table, e. g., a table of squares, corresponds to or is con- structed from a functional relation, e. g., for a table of squares, the relation y = x^. The differences in such a table are the differences caused by changes in the values of the independent variable. Thus, the differences in a table of squares are precisely the differences between a; ' and (x + hy for various values of x. 6. Oraphs. — The functional character of graphical representations was mentioned at the beginning of this section. Every graph is obviously a representation of a functional relationship between two or more quantities. What is needed is only to draw attention to this fact and to study each graph from this standpoint. In addi- tion to this, however, it is desirable to point out that fimctional FUNCTION CONCEPT IN SECONDARY MATHEMATICS. 57 relations may be studied directly by means of graphs without the intervention of any algebraic formula. Thus such a graph as a popu- lation curve, or a curve representing wind pressure, obviously repre- sents a relationship between two quantities, but there is no known formula in either case. The idea that the three concepts, tables, graphs, algebraic formulas, are all representations of the same kind of connection between quantities, and that we may start in some instances with any of the three, is a most valuable addition to the student's mental equipment, and to his control over the quantities with which he will deal in his daily life. . RELATIONSHIPS IN GEOMETRY. Thus far the instances mentioned have been largely algebraic, though certain mensuration formulas of geometry have been men- tioned. While the mensuration formulas may occur to one first as an illustration of functional concepts in geometry, they are by no means the earliest relationships that occur in that study. 1. Qmgruence. — Among the earliest theorems are those on the con- gruence of triangles. In any such theorem, the parts necessary to establish congruence evidently determine completely the size of each other part. Thus, two sides and the included angle of a triangle evidently determine the length of the third side. If the student clearly grasps this fact, the meaning of this case of congruence will be more vivid to him, and he will be prepared for its important applications in siu^eying and in trigonometry. Even if he never studies those subjects, he will nevertheless be able to use his under- standing of the situation in any practical cases in which the angle between two fixed rods or beams is to be fixed or is to be deterxnined, in a practical situation such as house building. Other congruence theorems throughout geometry may well be treated in a similar manner. 2. Inequalities. — In the theorems regarding inequalities, the func- tional quality is even more pronounced. Thus, if two triangles have two sides of one equal respectively to two sides of the other, but if the included angle between these sides in the one triangle is greater than the corresponding angle in the other, then the third sides of the triangles are unequal in the same sense. This theorem shows that as one angle grows, the side opposite it grows, if the other sides remain unchanged. A full realization of the fact here mentioned would involve a real grasp of the functional relation between the angle and the side opposite it. Thus, if the angle is doubled, will the side opposite it be doubled ? Such questions arise in connection with all theorems on inequalities. 3. Variations in figures. — A great assistance to the imagination is gained in certain figures by imagining variations of the figure through 58 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION. all intennediate stages from one case to another. Thus, the angle between two lines that cut a circle is measured by a proper combina- tion of the two arcs cut out of the circle by the two lines. As the vertex of the angle passes from the center of the circle to the cir- cumference and thence to the outside of the circle, the rule changes, but these changes may. be borne in mind, and the entire scheme may be grasped, by imagining a continuous change from the one position to the other, following all the time the changes in the intercepted arcs. The angle between a secant and a tangent is measured in a manner that can best be grasped by another such continuous motion, watching the changes in the measuring arcs as the motion occurs- Such observations are essentially functional in character, for they consist in careful observations of the relationships between the angle to be measured and the arcs that measure it. 4. Motion, — ^The preceding discussion of variable figures leads nat- urally to a discussion of actual motion. As figures move, either in whole or in part, the relationships between the quantities involved may change. To note these changes is to study the functional rela- tionships between the parts of the figures. Without the functional idea, geometry would be wholly static. The study of fixed figures should not be the sole purpose of a course in geometry, for the uses of geometry are not wholly on static figures. Indeed, in all machinery, the geometric figures formed are in continual motion, and the shapes of the figiu-es formed by the moving parts change. The study of motion and of moving forms, the dynamic aspects of geometry, should be given at least some consideration. Whenever this is done, the functional relations between the parts become of prime impor- tance. Thus a linkage of the form of a parallelogram can be made more nearly rectangular by making the diagonals more nearly equal, and the linkage becomes a rectangle if the diagonals are made exactly equal. This principle is used in practice in making a rectangular framework precisely true. 5. Proportionality theorems. — AH theorems which assert that certain quantities are in proportion to certain others, are obviously functional in character. Thus even the simplest theorems on rectangles assert that the area of a rectangle is directly proportional to its height, if the base is fixed. When more serious theorems are reached, such as the theorems on similar triangles, the functional ideas involved are worthy of considerable attention. That this is eminently true will be realized by all to whom trigonometry is familiar, for the trigo- nometric functions are nothing but the ratios of the sides of right triangles. But even in the field of elementary geometry a clear imderstanding of the relation between the areas (and volumes) of similar figures and the corresponding linear dimensions is of prime importance. b ruNcnois' concept in secondary mathematics. 59 RELATIONSHIPS IN TRIGONOMETRY. The existence of functional relationships in trigonometry is evi- denced by the common use of the words '^ trigonometric functions" to describe the trigonometric ratios. Thus the sine of an angle is a definite ratio, whose value depends upon and is determined by the size of the angle to which it refers. The student should be made con- scious of this relationship and he should be asked such questions as the following: Does the sine of an angle increase or decrease as the angle changes from zero to 90® ? If the angle is doubled, does the sine of the angle double ? If not, is the sine of double the angle more or less than twice the sine of the original angle ? How does the value of the sine behave as the angle increases from 90 to 180** ? From 180 to 270'' ? From 270 to SeO"" ? Similar questions may be asked for the cosine and for the tangent of an angle. Such questions may be reinforced by the use of figures that illus- trate the points in question. Thus an angle twice a given angle should be drawn, and its sine should be estimated from the figiu*e. A central angle and an inscribed angle on the same arc may be drawn in any circle. If they have one side in common^ the relations between their sines will be more apparent. Finally the relationships that exist may be made vivid by actual comparison of the numerical values foimd from the trigonometric tables. Not only in these first functional definitions, however, but in a variety of geometric figures throughout trigonometry do functional relations appear. Thus the law of cosines states a definite relation- ship between the three sides of a triangle and any one of the angles. How will the angle be affected by increase or decrease of the side op- posite it, if the other two sides remain fixed ? How will the angle be affected by an increase or a decrease of one of the adjacent sides, if the other two sides remain fixed ? Are these statements still true if the angle in question is obtuse ? As another example, the height of a tree, or the height of a building, may be determined by measuring the two angles of elevation from two points on the level plain in a straight line with its base. A for- mula for the height Qi) in terms of these two angles (A, B) and the distance {d) between the points of observation, may be easily written down (A = d sin -4 sin S/sin {A-B)). Then the effect upon the height of changes in one of these angles may be discussed. In a similar maimer, every formula that is given or derived in a course on trigonometry may be discussed with profit from the func- tional standpoint. CONCLUSION. In conclusion, mention should be made of the great r6le which the idea of functions plays in the life of the world about us. Even when no calculation is to be carried out, the problems of real life frequently 68867*»— 21 5 60 MATHEMATICS Uf SECONDARY EDUCATIOK. involve the ability to think correctly about the nature of the relation- ships which exist between related quantities. Specific mention has been made already of this type of problem in connection with interest on money. In everyday affairs, such as the filling out of formulas for fertilizers or for feeds, or for spraying mixtures on the farm, the similar filling out of recipes for cooking (on different scales from that of the book of recipes) , or the proper balancing of the ration in the preparation of food, many persons are at a loss on account of their lack of training in thinking about the relations between quantities. Another such instance of very conmion occurrence in real life is in insurance. Very few men or women attempt intelligently to under- stand the meaning and the fairness of premiums on life insmrance and on other forms of insurance, chiefly because they can not readily grasp the relations of interest and of chance that are involved. These relations are not particularly complicated and they do not in- volve any great amount of calculation for the comprehension of the meaning and of the fairness of the rates. Mechanics, farmers, mer- chants, housewives, as well as scientists, and engineers have to do constantly with quantities of things, and the quantities with which they deal are related to other quantities in ways that require clear thinking for maximum efficiency. One element that should not be neglected is the occurrence of such problems in public questions which must be decided by the votes of the whole people. The tariff, rates of postage and express, freight rates, regulation of insurance rates, income taxes, inheritance taxes, and many other public questions involve relationships between quan- tities— ^for example, between the rate of income taxation and the amount of the income — that require habits of functional thinking for intelligent decisions. The training in such habits of thinking is therefore a vital element toward the creation of good citizenship. It is believed that transfer of training does operate between such topics as those su^ested in the body of this paper and those just mentioned, because of the existence of such identical or common elements, whereas the transfer of the training given by courses in mathematics that do not emphasize functional relationships might be questionable. While this account of the fimctional character of certain topics in geometry and in algebra makes no claim to being exhaustive, the topics mentioned will suggest others of like character to the thought- ful teacher. It is hoped that sufficient variety has been mentioned to demonstrate the existence of functional ideas throughout elemen- tary algebra and geometry. The committee feels that if this is recognized, algebra and geometry can be given new meaning to many children, and that all students will be better able to control the actual relations which they meet in their own lives. Chapter VHI. TERMS AND SYMBOLS IN ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS.' A. Limitations imposed hy the committee upon its work. — The com- mittee feels that in dealing with this subject it should explicitly recognize certain general limitations, as follows : 1. No attempt should be made to impose the phraseology of any definition; although the conmiittee should state clearly its general views as to the meanmg of disputed terms. 2. No effort should be made to change any well-defined current usage imless there is a strong reason for doing so, which reason is supported by the best authority, and, other things being substantially equal, the terms used should be international. This principle excludes the use of all individual efforts at coining new terms except under circumstances of great urgency. The individual opinions of the members, as indeed of any teacher or body of teachers, should have little weight in comparison with general usage if this usage is definite. If an idea has to be expressed so often in elementary mathematics that it becomes necessary to invent a single term or symbol for the purpose, this invention is necessarily the work of an individual; but it is highly desirable, even in this case, that it should receive the sanction of wide use before it is adopted in any system of examina- tions. 3. On account of the large number of terms and symbols now in use, the recommendations to be made will necessarily be typical rather than exhaustive. I. GEOMETRY. B. Undefined term^. — ^The committee recommends that no attempt be made to define, with any approach to precision, terms whose definitions are not needed as parts of a proof. Especially is it recommended that no attempt be made to define precisely such terms as space, magnitude^ point, straight line, surface, plane, direction, distance, and solid, although the significance of such terms should be made clear by informal explanations and discussions. C. Definite usage recommended. — It is the opinion of the conmiittee that the following general usage is desirable: 1. Circle should be considered as the curve; but where no ambi- guity arises, the word *' circle" may be used to refer either to the curve or to the part of the plane inclosed by it. 1 The first draft of this chapter was prepared by a subcommittee consisting of David Eugene Smith (chairman), W. W. Hart, H. E. Hawkes, E. R. Hedrick, and H. £. Slaught. It was revised by the national committee at its meeting December 29 and 30, 1920. 61 62 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDAKY EDUCATION. 2. Polygon (including triangle, square, parallelogram, and the like) should be considered, by analogy to a circle, as a closed broken line; but where no ambiguity arises, the word polygon may be used to refer either to the broken line or to the part o\ the plane inclosed by it. Similarly, segment of a circle should be defined as the figure formed by a chord and either of its arcs. 3. Area of a circle should be defined as the area (numerical measure) of the portion of the plane inclosed by the circle. Area of a polygon should be treated in the same way. 4. Solids. The usage above recommended with respect to plane figures is also recommended with respect to solids. For example, sphere should be regarded as a surface, its volume should be defined in a manner similar to the area of a circle, and the double use of the word should be allowed where no ambiguity arises. A similar usage should obtain with respect to such terms as polyhedron, cone, and cylinder. 5. Circumference should be considered as the length (numerical measure) of the circle Gine). Similarly, perimeter should be defined as the length of the broken line which forms a polygon; that is, as the sum of the lengths of the sides. 6. Ohtuse angle should be defined as an angle greater than a right angle and less than a straight angle, and should therefore not be defined merely as an angle greater than a right angle. 7. The term right triangle should be preferred to "right-angled triangle," this usage being now so standardized in this country that it may properly be continued m spite of the fact that it is not inter- national. Similarly for acute triangle, oituse triangle, and oblique triangle. 8. Such English plurals as formulas and polyhedrons should be used in place of the Latin and Greek plurals. Such unnecessary Latin abbreviations as Q. E. D. and Q. E. F. should be dropped. 9. The definitions of axiom and postulate ysltj so much that the committee does not imdertake to distinguish between them. D. Terms made general. — It is the recommendation of the commit- tee that the modem tendency of having terms made as general as possible should be followed. For example : 1. Isosceles triangle should be defined as a triangle having two equal sides. There should be no limitation to two and only two equal sides. 2. Rectangle should be considered as including a square as a special case. 3. Parallelogram should be considered as including a rectangle, and hence a square, as a special case. 4. Segment should be used to designate the part of a straight line included between two of its points as well as the figure formed by an TEBMS AND SYMBOLS. 63 arc of a circle and its chord; this being the usage generally recognized by modem writers. E, Terms to he ahandoned. — It is the opinion of the committee that the following terms are not of enough consequence in elementary mathematics at the present time to make their recognition desirable in examinations, and that they serve chiefly to increase the technical vocabulary to the point of being burdensome and unnecessary: 1. ArUecedent 9Liid coTisequent. 2. Third proportional and fourth proportional. 3. Equivalent. An xmnecessary substitute for the more precise expressions '* equal in area" and ** equal in volume," or (where no confusion is likely to arise) for the single word '^ equal." 4. Trapezium. 5. Scholium, lemma, oblong, scalene triangle, sect, perigon, rhomboid (the term '^oblique parallelogram" being sufficient), and reflex angle (in elementary geometry). 6. Terms like flat angle, whole angle, and conjugate angle are not of enough value in an elementary course to make it desirable to rec- ommend them. 7. Subtend, a word which has no longer any etymological meaning to most students and teachers of geometry. While its use will naturally continue for some time to come, teachers may safely in- cline to such forms as the following: ''In the same circle equal arcs have equal chords." 8. Homologous, the less technical term '* corresponding" being preferable. 9. Guided by principle A2 and its interpretation, the committee advises against the use of such terms as the following: Angle-bi- sector, angle-sum, consecutive interior angles, supplemsTUary consec- utit>e exterior angles, quader (for rectangular solid), sect, explem£nt, transverse angles. 10. It is unfortunate that it still seems to be necessary to use such a term as parallelepiped, but we seem to have no satisfactory substi- tute. For rectangular parallelepiped, however, the use of rectan- gular solid is recommended. If the terms were more generally used in elementary geometry it would be desirable to consider carefully whether better ones could not be found for the purposes than iso^ perimetric, apoihem, icosahedron, and dodecahedron. F. Symbols in elementary geometry. — It should be recognized that a symbol like L is merely a piece of shorthand designed to afford an easy graap of a written or printed statement. Many teachers and a few writers make an extreme use of symbols, coining new ones to meet their own views as to usefulness, and this practice is 64 MATHEMATICS IN SBCOKDABT EDUCATION. naturally open to objection.^ There axe, however, certain sjrmbolB that are international and certain others of which the meaning is at once apparent and which are sufficiently useful and generally enough recognized to be recommended. For example, the symbols for triangle, A, and circle, O, are inter- national, allJiough used more extensiyely in the United States than in other countries. Their use, with their customary plurals, is rec- ommended. The sjonbol ±, generally read as representing the single word ^^perpendicular" but sometimes as standing for the phrase ''is per- pendicular to/' is fairly international and the meaning is apparent. Its use is therefore recommended. On account of such a phrase as 'Hhe 1 AB," the first of the above readings is likely to be the more widely used, but in either case there is no chance for confusion. The symbol || for '^paraUel" or ''is parallel to" is fairly interna- tional and is recommended. The symbol-- for "sinular" or "is similar to" is international and is recommended. The symbols ^ and ^ for "congruent" or ^4s congruent to" both have a considerable use in this coimtry. The committee feels that the former, which is fairly international, is to be preferred because it is the more distinctive and suggestive. The symbol Z for '^ angle" is, because of its simplicity, coming to be generally preferred to any other and is therefore recommended. Since the following terms are not used frequently enough to render special symbols of any particular value, the world has not developed any that have general acceptance, and there seems to be no necessity for making the attempt: Square, rectangle, parallelo- gram, trapezoid, quadrilateral, semicircle. The symbol AB for "arc AB" can not be called international. While the value of the symbol ^ in place of the short word are is doubtful, the conunittee sees no objection to its use. The symbol .". for "therefore" has a value that is generally recog- nized, but the symbol ".• for "since" is used so seldom that it should be abandoned. With respect to the lettering of figures, the committee calls atten- tion for purposes of general information to a convenient method, found in certain European and in some American textbooks, of lettering triangles: Capitals represent the vertices, corresponding small letters represent opposite sides, corresponding small Greek letters represent angles, and the primed letters represent the corre- sponding parts of a congruent or similar triangle. This permits of * This is not intended to discourage the use of algebraic methods in the solution of such geometric prob- lems as lend themselves readily to algebraic treatment. TEBMS AND SYMBOLS. 65 speaking of a (alpha) instead of ''angle A, " and of ''small a '' instead of BC, The plan is by no means international with respect to the Greek letters. The committee is prepared, however, to recommend it with the optional use of the Greek forms. In general, it is recommended that a single letter be used to des- ignate any geometric magnitude, whenever there is no danger of ambiguity. The use of numbers alone to designate magnitudes should be avoided by the use of such forms A^, A„ ... . With respect to the symbolism for limits, the committee calls attention to the fact that the symbol = is a local one, and that the symbol — ► (for "tends to'') is both international and expressive and has constantly grown in favor in recent years. Although the subject of limits is not generally treated scientifically in the secondary school, the idea is mentioned in geometry and a symbol may occasionally be needed. While the teacher should be allowed freedom in the matter, the committee feels that it is desirable to discoiu*age the use of ^ch purely local symbols as the following: = for "equal in degrees," ass for "two sides and an angle adjacent to one of them," and sas for "two sides and the included angle." th^ committee recognizes that convenience of writing assures its continued use in many cases instead of the fractional exponent. It is reconunended, however, that in algebraic work involving complicated cases the fractional exponent be preferred. Attention is also called to the fact that the convention is quite generally accepted that the symbol i/a (d rep- resenting a positive number) means only the positive square root and that the symbol V^ means only the principal nth root, and similarly for a^, a^^". The reason for this convention is apparent when we come to consider the value of V4 + V^-f VT6-f V26. This convention being agreed to, it is improper to write ar= V^, as the complete solution of a?— 4 = 0, but the result should appear as x=^ ±^jA. Similarly, it is not in accord with the convention to write V4 = ± 2, the conventional form being ±^fi= ±2] and for the same reason it is impossible to have V( — 1)' = — 1> since the sym- bol refers only to a positive root. These distinctions are not matters to be settled by the individual opinion of a teacher or a local group of 68 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION. . teachers; they are purely matters of convention as to notation, and the committee simply sets forth, for the benefit of the teachers, this statement as to what the convention seems to be among the leading writer^ of the world at the present time. When imaginaries are used, the symbol i should be employed instead of V~ ^ except possibly in the first presentation of the sub- ject. 7. As to the factorial symbols 5 ! and |5, to represent 5 • 4 • 3 • 2 • 1 , the tendency is very general to abandon the second one, probably on account of the difficulty of printing it, and the conmiittee so recom- mends. This question is not, however, of much importance in the general courses in the high school. 8. With respect to symbols for an unknown quantity there has been a noteworthy change within a few years. While the Cartesian use of X and y will doubtless continue for two general unknowns, the recognition that the formula is, in the broad use of the term, a central feature of algebra has led to the extended use of the initial letter. This is simply illustrated in the direction to solve for r the equation A^^irr*. This custom is now international and should be fully recognized in the schools. 9. The committee advises abandoning the double colon(: :) in proportion, and the symbol oc in variation, both of these symbols being now practically obsolete. J. Terms and syrnbols in arithmetic. — 1. While it is rarely wise to attempt to abandon suddenly the use of words that are well estab- lished in our language, the committoe feels called upon to express regret that we still require very young pupils, often in the primary grades, to use such terms as subtrdhendy addend, minuend and mvUi- plicand. Teachers themselves rarely understand the real signifi- cance of these words, nor do they recognize that they are com- paratively modem additions to what used to be a much simpler vocabularly in arithmetic. The committee recommends that such terms be used, if at all, only after the sixth grade. 2. Owing to the imcertainty attached to such expressions as *'to three decimal places,'' *'to thousandths," *' correct to three decimal places," '^ correct to the nearest thousandth," the following usage is recommended: When used to specify accuracy in computa- tion, the four expressions should be regarded as identical. The expression ''to three decimal places" or ''to thousandths" may be used in giving directions as to the extent of a computation. It then refers to a result carried only to thousandths, without considering the figure of ten- thousandths; but it should be avoided as far as possible because it is open to misunderstanding. As to the term, "significant figure," it should be noted that 0 is always significant TERMS AND SYMBOLS. 69 except when used before a decimal fraction to indicate the absence of integers or, in general, when used merely to locate the decimal point. For example, the zeros underscored in the following are ** significant," while the others are not: 0.6, 9.60, 102, 30,200. Fur- ther, the number 2396, if expressed correct to three significant figures, would be written 2400." It should be noted that the context or the way in which a nimiber has been obtained is sometimes the deter- mining factor as to the significance of a 0. 3. The pupil in arithmetic needs to see the work in the form in which he will use it in practical life outside the schoolroom. His visualization of the process should therefore not include such symbols as + , — , X , -^ , which are helpful only in writing out the analysis of a problem or in the printed statement of the operation to be performed. Because of these facts the committee recommends that only slight use be made of these symbols in the written work of the pupil, except in the analysis of problems. It recognizes, however, the value of such symbols in printed directions and in these analyses. m. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. K, Oeneral observations. — The committee desires also to record its belief in two or three general observations. 1. It is very desirable to bring mathematical writing into closer touch with good usage in Enghsh writing in general. That we have failed in this particular has been the subject of frequent comment by teachers of mathematics as well as by teachers of English. This is aU the more imfortunate because mathematics may be and should be a genuine help toward the acquisition of good habits in the speaking and writing of English. Under present conditions, with a style that is often stilted and in which undue compression is evident, we do not offer to the student the good models of English writing of which mathematics is capable, nor indeed do we always offer good models of thought processes. It is to be feared that many teachers encour- age the use of a kind of vulgar mathematical slang when they allow such words as *'tan" and "cos," for tangent and cosine, and habitu- ally call their subject by the title "math." 2. In the same general spirit the committee wishes to observe that teachers of mathematics and writers of textbooks seem often to have gone to an extreme in searching for technical terms and for new sym- bols. The committee expresses the hope that mathematics may retain, as far as possible, a literary flavor. It seems perfectly feasible that a printed discussion should strike the pupil as an expression of reasonable ideas in terms of reasonable English forms. The fewer technical terms we introduce, the less is the subject likely to give s The underscoring of significant zeros is here used merely to make clear the committee's meaning. The device is not recommended for general adoption. 70 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDABY EDUCATION. {he impression of being difficult and a mere juggling of words and symbols. 3. While recognizing the claims of euphony, the fact that a word like '^ historic" has a different meaning from ''historical" and that confusion may occasionally arise if ''arithmetic" is used as an adjec- tive with a different pronunciation from the noun, the committee advises that such forms as geometric be preferred to geometrical. This is already done in such terms as analytic geometry and elliptic functions, and it seems proper to extend the custom to include arUh- metic, geometric, graphic, and the like. L. Oeneral recommendations. — In view of the desirabihty of a simplification of terms used in elementary instruction, and of establish- ing international usage so far as is reasonable, the committee recom- mends that the subject of this report be considered by a committee to be appointed by Section IV of the next International Congress of Mathematicians, such committee to contain representatives of at least the recognized international languages admitted to the meetings. 2. The committee suggests that examining bodies, contributors to mathematical journals, and authors of textbooks endeavor to follow the general principles formulated in. this report. >i SYNOPSIS OF THE REMAINING CHAPTERS OF THE COMPLETE REPORT. Chapter IX. — Tse Pbesent Status of Disoeplinasy Valueb in Education. By Vevia Blair. A critical survey of the scientific Kterature relating to disciplinary values and the transfer of training, followed by an attempt to for- mulate conclusions warranted by the results of investigations and supported by leading educational psycholc^ists. Chapter X. — A Critical Study of the Correlation Method Applied to Grades. By A. R. Crathome. An investigation to determine the serviceabiUty and reUabihty in educational problems of the theory of correlation applied to grades. The chapter begins with a nontechnical description of the theory of correlation. This is followed by an attempt to formulate a scale of values for the correlation coefficient with a view of determining with as much precision as possible what constitutes ''high," "medium/' or "low'' correlation. Finally the theory is applied to all the studies in the high-school curriculum — with some significant results as to the educational influence of certain groups of subjects as compared with other groups. Chapter XI. — ^Mathematical Curricula in Foreign Countries. By J. C. Brown. A brief account of the work in mathematics offered by the elemen* tary and secondary schools of Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Holland, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Roumania, Russia, Sweden, and Switzerland, followed by a general summary comparing conditions in the United States with those in the countries mentioned. Chapter XII. — ^Experimental Courses in Mathematics. By Raleigh Schorling. An extensive description of the work in mathematics given in 14 leading experimental schools of this country — ^giving in detail the order of topics and the time devoted to each, the equipment of the schools, the cost of the instruction, etc. 71 72 MATHEMATICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION. Chapter XIII. — Standardized Tests in Mathematics for Secondary Schools. By C. B. Upton. A description of various standard tests in arithmetic, algebra, and geometry, and a discussion of their use in the teaching of mathe- matics. The tests considered are the following: The Courtis arithmetic tests, the Woody arithmetic scales, the Woody-McCall arithmetic test, the Stone reasoning tests, the Courtis standard prac- tice tests in arithmetic, the Studebaker practice exercises in arith- metic, the Rugg-Clark practice exercises in first-year algebra, the Hotz first-year algebra scales, the Kelly mathematical values test, the Minnick geometry tests, the Rogers prognostic tests of mathematical ability, and others. Chapter XIV. — ^The Training of Teachers of Mathematics. By R. C. Archibald. « A selection from the results of an extended and detailed investiga- tion, covering every State in the Union and all the larger cities, con- cerning present conditions regarding the training of teachers of mathematics, the facilities for providing such training, and the requirements for certification. The selection is made for the pur- pose of exhibiting the highest standards to be found in various parts of the country and the courses of study for the training of teachers given in various institutions. The chapter also includes a brief, survey of conditions in certain foreign countries. Chapter XV. — Certain Questionnaire Investigations. By W. F. Downey, A. R. Crathome, Alfred Davis, and others. These investigations relate to the interests of high-school pupils, change of mind as to life work between high school and college, the importance of mathematics, etc. Chapter XVI. — Bibliography on the Teachino of Mathematics. By D. E. Smith and J. A. Foberg. This bibliography lists all the articles relating to mathematics that have appeared since 1910 in a number of leading educational periodicak, and gives in addition to author, title, and place of publi- cation a brief summary of each article. INDEX. Algebra, elementary, minor and major college-entrance requirements, 41-43; grades seven, eight, and nine, 19-21; grades ten, eleven, and twelve, 30-31; relation- ships, 54-57; terms smd symbols, 65-68. Arithmetic, applications to business, 18; terms tfnd symbols, 68-69. Biography of mathematics, 22-23. Calculus, elementary, 32-33; reconmiendations, 34-35. College-entrance requirements, 36-46; definition, 41-46. See aUo Algebra, Geometry. Computation, numerical, 23-24. Courses of study, elective, grades ten, eleven and twelve, 29-34; '^general," 10-12; high-school movement, 12-13; junior high school, 24; optional topics, grades seven, eight, and nine, 22; required, 12; topics to be included in high school, 36-37; topics to be omitted or postponed, grades seven, eight, and nine, 22-23; value of topics as preparation for elementary, 38-39. See. also Algebra, Calculus, Geometry, Trigonometry, etc. Eight-four plan, school organized, 25-26. Elective courses, 29-33. Elementary college courses, value of topics as preparation, 38-39. Elementary mathematics, terms and symbols, 61-70. Function concept, secondary school mathematics, 53-60. Geometry, demonstrative, 21-22; intuitive, 18-19; relationships, 57-58; terms and. symbols, 61-65; work, 31-32. Geometry (plane), college entrance requirements, 43-46; list of propositions, 47-51. Geometry, plane demonstrative, 29-30. Geometry, solid, list of propositions, 51-52. Grades seven, eight, and nine, material, 17-26. History of mathematics, 22, 33. Instruction. See Mathematical instruction. Junior high school, course of study, 24; movement, 12-13. Materials, plans for arrangements, 33-35; suggested arrangements, 24-26. Mathematical instruction, aims, 4-8; attitude of colleges, 40-41; organization of subject matter, 10-13; point of view governing, 8-10. Mathematics, history and biography, 22. National Committee on Mathematical Requirements, oflBcers and members, iv; organ- ization and purpose, v-vi. Problems, educational utility, 23. Secondary school mathematics, function concept, 53-60. Statistics, elementary, 32. Teachers, standards, 14-15; training, 13-15. Terms and symbols, elementary mathematics, 61-70. Trigonometry, elementary, 32; numerical, 21; relationships, 59. Years seven, eight, and nine, 16-26. Years ten, eleven, and twelve, 27-35. 73 : I t- iConthnudfnnt page f <^eoMr.) Na 28. Bdncational mnrv^y of Wheeling, W. Va. W. T. Bawdeii. No. 29. MoQiUytccordofedacaUoiuilpubUcationB, Septet *No. 30. Salariiee ol adnuttiftoitive officers, and tibeir aasistantfl in school systeiiis o( . dtie0 of 100,000 inhabitante or more. ' W. S. Deffenbaugh/ No. 31. Monthly record of cuttent educational publicati ] •v.- f Hvvard Univtrtltyi Librar/ of th« Qnduttt I of Education DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN. 1921. No. 33 MUSIC DEPARTMENTS OF LBRARIES By A COMMITTEE OF THE MUSIC TEACHERS' NATIONAL ASSOCIATION WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 \ 1 I ADDITIONAL COPIES OF TBIS PUBLICATION MAT BE PROCURED PROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OP DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTINO OPPICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY CONTENTS. Page. Introduction 5 Reports from libraries 7 Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas 7 California 8 Colorado, Connecticut ^ 10 Delaware 11 District of Columbia 1 12 Florida 15 Georgia, Idaho, Illinois 16 Indiana 18 Iowa 19 Kansas 20 Kentucky, Louisiana 21 Maine 22 Maryland, Massachusetts 23 Michigan 28 Minnesota 29 Mississippi, Missouri 30 Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire 31 New Jersey 32 New Mexico, New York 33 North Carolina, North Dakota 38 Ohio 39 Oklahoma 40 Oregon, Pennsylvania 41 Rliode Island 43 South Carolina, Soutli Dakota, Tennessee 44 Texas, Utah, Vermont 45 Virginia, Washington, West Virginia 46 Wisconsin, Wyoming 47 Appendix : Music in our libraries — By O. Gf. Sonneck : 49 Bibliography of music 51 Index 63 3 ^^^>r^ i/i^ I . . Library of the Graduate School •f Cdyoiti#n MUSIC DEPARTMENTS OF LIBRARIES. INTRODUCTION. The Music Teachers' National Association committee on the history of music and libraries presents herewith the summaries of the questionnaire prepared by the committee and sent out by the Bureau of Education in 1017-18. This is the first statement to show the condition and resources of the music sections of public and school libraries, containing 5,000 volumes or over, throughout the United States. The result is both encouraging and discouraging. It is encour- aging in that the report shows a fairly wide dissemination of considerable music libraries throughout the country, with some collections of first rank. It is encouraging for the reason that many more libraries report increasing interest in the music departments, in comparison to the number where music interest is stationary, or decreasing. It is encouraging because many of the librarians who report small collections are careful to note that the reason therefor is recent installation of the section, perhaps even the youth of the library itself, or lack of room or of other facilities. The discouraging feature is the lack of interest shown, though not more fre- quently than might be expected, by librarians, music teachers, and music lovers. One of the prime objects of the committee is to deal with this matter, and now that the information has been collated prompt steps will be taken. The Music Teachers' National Association committee was appointed by the then president, Mr. J. Lawrence Erb, in 1916. As a preliminary to the later activity Mr. O. G. Sonneck, at the time chief of the music division of the Library of Congress, in Washington, read a paper at the annual meeting in New York on the " History of Music in America — ^A Few Suggestions," re- printed in the association's Proceedings for 1916, pages 50-68 ; and he contrib- uted to The Art World (1917, June, pp. 242-244) an article, "Music in Our Libraries," which has such a direct bearing on the subject of this report that parts of it are reprinted in these pages as an appendix. In the months suc- ceeding Mr. Sonneck prepared a questionnaire, which was sent out- by the Bureau of Education to 2,849 libraries. The answers to this questionnaire are summarized in the following pages, with such comment as seems appropriate for certain special cases. This stage of the committee's work now being complete, it remains to progress along other lines, such as an investigntion of the large private music collections, and efforts to promote the larger encouragement of music sections by both libraries and their musical patronage. To this end suggestive lists of desirable books and music may be prepared and made available for interested parties. Even a casual inspection of the reports received from the libraries indicates two important matters. If the collection of music or books on music is small and inadequate, patronage is almost invariably small. A number of librarians realize and mention this fact in their reports. A music section to which addi- tions are constantly being made seldom fails to bring patronage in gratifying proportion to the accessions of musical material. The second outstanding fact 5 6 MUSIC DEPARTMENTS OF LIBRARIES. Is that a librarian who is patently uninterested in a music section, even from a nonpartisan viewpoint, as some reports unfortunately indicate, can scarcely be expected to be an asset to the community. The libraries, large or small, that promote music in at least a fair and impartial way thus serve a considerable part of any community in a very special sense, and one that can react most desirably upon the library itself. On the other hand, there is an abundant opportunity for mtfsic teachers, students, and others to make larger use of the libraries and to encourage the library authorities to develop the music section facilities. Some of the interesting features of the reports are detailed in the following account, and the committee hopes that the information thus collated will be of value to librarians and others. Many librarians have included in their reports mention of certain departments or activities that have met with popular ap- proval. Some librarians, particularly in the Eastern States, seem rather shocked at the mention of player-piano rolls and phonograph records as library propo- sitions, while other librarians are anxious to install or add to such collections. Some excellent finding lists, large and small, and some very attractive bulletins have been sent as evidence of interest in certain libraries; these are duly mentioned. It is ho])ed that the index of special features will be of par- ticular use to librarians and serious music students. William Benbow, Chairman. Waldo S. Pratt. O. G. Son NECK. J. Lawrence Erb. Charles N. Boyd. REPORTS FROM LIBRARIES. ALABAMA. Reports have been received from seven libraries, six of which have less than 100 volumes on music, and the seventh 225 volumes. One has 51 bound volumes of music, one 1,543, and one 2,000 separate pieces. One has 18 scorea One library is now spending $80 annually on its music purchases, from a special fund, and another has an appropriation of $5. Two report increasing interest and one decreasing interest in music. Two libraries would increase the music section, and one believes it sufficient for the needs of the situation. One has a piano in the library. The Public Library at Birmingham has only recently instituted a music sec- tion. It has 225 books on music, 51 bound volumes of music, and 1,543 separate pieces, in manila covers. It also has 382 player-piano rolls for circulation. In- terest is reported increasing, and it is hoped that much more may be done with music in the future. ARIZONA. Of the four libraries reporting music, one has 25 volumes, two 100 each, and one 200. One has 100 bound volumes of music, one 175, and one 1,000 separate pieces of music. No special interest is indicated, either on the part of libraries or the public, and only one library reports a desire for an increased music collection. ARKANSAS. Music activity in Arkansas libraries seems to be largely represented by that department of the Univertiiy of Arkansas, at Fayetteville. This Institution has made a speciality of providing programs of phonograph records, each program accompanied by a nontechnical " talk," with copious notes and pictures. These programs, covering a wide range of music, are intended for communities other- wise deprived of music, and are used by clubs and schools all over the State. The programs and illustrative remarks have been largely used outside the State and are furnished upon request. By keeping the material in rapid circulation, this plan is accomplished with a supply of 300 records. A State appropria- tion provides annually $300 for music, $75 for books on music, and $100 for records. Interest is increasing, and the present collection of 25 books, 100 bound volumes, and 100 separate pieces of sheet music in the library is entirely inadequate for the demand. Part songs and chorus works are furnished other schools in the State, and an active propaganda is conducted by means of lectures and recitals, in addition to the above plan. The only other library reporting music from Arkansas has a collection of 25 volumes on music, and evidently slight interest. 7 8 MUSIC DEPARTMENTS OF LIBRARIES. CALIFORNIA. Number of libraries reporting— Items reported. 1-100 12^-450 600- 1,000 1,10(K. 1,600 2,000 and over. Not over $100. 1135- 1200 1 1250- S500 Over «500. Books on music 20 10 1 6 11 5 16 5 2 1 1 3 7 11 2 1 1 2 2 Bound volumes of music Separate pieces Phonograph records Scores ■ Chamber music A<»4iiiisitioT^ cost . . . 2 8 8 2 1 4 2 i* 2 3 3 2 1 4 Annual expense for— Music Books on music 1 Rolls and records library fund appropriation. . Ideal appropriation 6 1 The music sections of the 45 California libraries reporting julleate inuisual interest in and attention to the subject. Eight persons devote their entire time as music librarians, while 22 others give their time largely, in addition to the customary help of the library staff. Orchestral scores and chamber music are found in an unusual number of libraries. The policy of the libraries seems to be influenced about equally by public request and institutional character. Gifts of library material are proportionately rare, and most of the acquisitions are by purchase, under expert guidance. Four libraries report opportunities for serious musical study ; 21 libraries use special bulletins, newspaper, and other publicity ; 8 report an 'annual appropriation for music department use, amount not specified. Other annual expenses are tabulated herewith. Seventeen libra- ries report Increasing interest In music, four stationary interest, and one de- creased Interest since the war. Sixteen libraries favor additional outlay for music and books, believing the present supply Inadequate, while four libraries would add player rolls or records. In 11 cases this Is dictated by patrons' wishes, and In five cases by library policy. Pianos are available In three libraries and phonographs In four. Fifteen libraries have an Interllbrary loan system for music, and two furnish "traveling" libraries. Two have lectures (In one case weekly), and both libraries pay for these lectures or recitals. The Lo8 Angeles City School Library makes a specialty of music and musical literature for public-school use and Issues a list of book helps in biography, opera stories, and kindergarten songs and games; 2,500 teachers draw steadily upon this collection, which has an annual appropriation of $200 for books on music, records, etc. The aim Is to supplement the classroom work in music ; to this end the records and material are very thoroughly classified and listed In every school building.^ The plan Is regarded as very successful and satisfactory. The Lo8 Angeles Public Library has 2,388 books on music in Its main library and branches, with 3,537 bound volumes of music. The object has been to acquire a well-balanced collection, without specialties. No record Is kept of users of the books on music, but 23,833 scores were loaned last year. The allowance this year is $300 for music and $100 for books on music. The Lo8 Angeles Public Library has made an Innovation by advertising In a local music magazine, the advertisements being cleverly written and inviting. The monthly bulletin for December, 1914, describes the plans and operations of the music department, with a considerable list of recent additions. The sound- proof music room, with player pianos, may be used regularly by clubs according ^ A long list of phonograph records is ready in mimeographed form. MUSIC DEPARTMENTS OF LIBBABIES. 9 to appointment Local musical affains are bulletined in advance, with mention of material in the library. The quarterly bulletin for October, 1916, prints a care- fully selected list of books about music. The Oakland Free Library, with 325 volumes on music and 950 bound vol- umes of music, has also about 7,500 copies of anthems and cantatas, which are circulated to church choirs. For the year closing June 30, 1917, 76 churches took 1,357 titles and 24,331 copies under this unique arrangement. A separate booklet gives the contents and rules for borrowing material from this collec- tion, known as the Vosper Collection of Church Music, from its founder, Mr. O. M. Vesper. A d9-page list of this music was published in 1914. The Chaffey Library, at Ontario, has 120 books on music, 125 bound vol- umes of music, and 100 records, evidently well chosen. A special bulletin of this material is published to stimulate high school and general interest in this department. The Pasadena Public Library has 1,000 volumes on music and 980 volumes of bound music. Special attention has been paid to the collection of piano music and operas. The library reports music as one of its most popular departments. The Pomona Public Library tried the experiment of giving each music teacher in the vicinity a list of musical works and offered to keep these lists up to date, but none have ever been returned for this purpose. The A. K. Smiley Public Library, at Redlands, has 350 books on music and 600 bound volumes of music, particularly strong in vocal scores of operas; 70 chamber music works are represented. There is an annual appropriation of $50 from the library funds for the music department. An 8-page catalogue of the musical material was published in December, 1913. The California State Library, at Sacramento, supplements all the other libraries of the State. To this end it is desired to build up a fine collection of scores, records, and player rolls, as well as musical literature, and to loan this through the other libraries. As yet the musical collections are not large, but plans for a new State library building include a music room, and by the time the building is ready it is hoped the collection will be available. Two pam- phlets published by the library explain the county free library system now in use in California. The music alcove in the San Diego Public Library is practically a new undertaking, though it contains 1,500 books. The bound volumes of piano music are arranged according to periods and nationalities. There are also special collections of folk song and church music. Annually $100 is taken from the book fund for music purchases ; 2,000 persons now use the music collection annually, and the interest is increasing. The library notes the use of the music collection by music teachers and appreciate their requests and helpful suggestions. The San Diego High School Library and school authorities believe in stimu- lating intelligent musical appreciation on the part of every student, and em- phasize the cultural rather than the technical work. The high school has an elaborate four-year course in musical history, and after the first year the study is largely by assigned reference reading instead of textbooks. The library of 250 books on music and 400 records is largely selected in accord with this plan, and is patronized by an average of 25 scholars for every day in the school year. There is a liberal appropriation for books and records; music is not purchased for the library. The San Francisco Public Library has a music room, with an adjoining sound-proof piano room. T\^^o attendants devote all their time to the music collection, which includes 1,500 books on music, 2,124 bound volumes of music, 70206'— 22 2 10 MUSIC DEPARTMENTS OF LIBRARIES. and 2,000 unbound pieces. About 35 per cent of the music books are in German or Italian. The collection is strong in piano music and vocal and instrumental scores of operas. There are 100 orchestral scores, and about 100 chamber music works. The library has a valuable collection of Spanish music, and many early and rare editions. About $500 is spent annually on music, and about $000 on books on music. In 1915-16, 0>969 borrowers used the music collection, and the following year this number increased to 0,250, no count being kept of renders who do not take books out. The use of the music department, as com- pared with the entire library, was 2.84 per cent for 1915-16 and 3.46 per cent for 1916-17. There are weekly lectures, as a university extension course, under the auspices of the University of California. The department is brought into touch with all musical events in the city. Programs are obtained in advance and filed, musical magazines are indexed, and articles of interest to readers of the department are clipped from the dally papers. COLORADO. Number of libraries reporting— Itein:0 yjor cent is of music and 40 per cent of books on music. The Yale School of RelUjion owns the church music library of the late Dr. Lowell Mason, containing some 8,(X)0 titles in 700 volumes. As the collection was one of the Hrst of its kind in this country, it is of peculiar interest. At present it is deposited in a room in Wright Hall, but the exi^ctation is to ulti- mately make the collection accessible to students in the Yale Music School. The Yale University Library has a music room, with one attendant, previously trained in general library work. There are 2,200 books on music and 1,800 bound volumes of music; 40 per cent of the books are German, 6 per cent French, 4 per cent Spanish, Russian, etc. There are 350 orchestral scores and 40 of chamber music. History, folk song, and early American music are the strongest fields, and these offer some attraction for research workers. The amount spent on the library varies greatly from year to year. There is an income of $50 from an endowment fund; perhaps the average annual outlay is $50 for music and $150 for books on music. Interest in the collection is felt to be stationary and not equal to the interest of the community in music ; a strongly expressed desire for books or music would be met. The collection is kept fairly up to date in historical, critical, and theoretical works, especially those of modern French and German authors. DELAWARE. The only considerable music library reported is that of the Wilmington Insti- tute Free Library, at Wilmington. It has 350 books on music, 473 bound volumes of music, and 1,000 separate pieces of music, and this is consideretl sufficient to supply the demands of the community. 12 MUSIC DEPARTMEKTS OF LIBRARIES. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. The outstanding feature of the report from this District Is of course the uuisic division of the Library of Congress. The functions of this division are, to quote the words of the report, '* national, international, and incidentally local. Its ultimate ambition is to make the serious study of music and the literature of music so comprehensively easy for Americans as to obviate the necessity of consulting European libraries except in very special fields of musical erudition. Since the reorganization of the music division in 1902, the principle of organic development has been adhered to consistently, with re- sults best studied from the Annual Reports of the Librarian of Congress, 1003 to 1917, from Mr. Sonneck's articles, and others as follows " : Sonneck, O. O, " The Music Division of the Library of Congress." In lAbrary Journal, 1915, vol. 40, No. 8. pp. 587-589. In New Music Review, 1910, v. 9, pp. 74-78. ** Methods, Policies and Resources,'* in M. T. N. A. Proceedings, 1908, pp. 2eO-287. Kinkeldey, Otto. "American Music Catalogs.'* In Library Journal, 1915, v. 40, No. 8, pp. 574-578. Scholes, Percy A. "A NationnI Storehouse of Knowledge. A Visit to the Music Section of the T-Ibrary of Congress." In Music Student, I^ondon, 1916, v. 8, pp. 322-324. The following statement has been ccmimunicated by the Librarian of Congress : THE MUSIC DIVISION OF THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.* The music division was organized in 1897, when the collections consisted almost solely of accumulated copyright deposits. It was an accumulation of music rather than a collection, and certainly did not merit the designation of " musical library." In order to transform it into one worthy of such a name and of the national library at least four steps were necessary. These were (1) a survey and proper organization of the existing collection, (2) the deter- mination of a suitable scheme of classification and of a workable set of cataloging rules, (8) a plan of development that would be systematic, and (4) the application of systematic effort in pursuance of this plan through the acquisition of material. A decision to work along these lines was reached in 1902, and for 15 years was most ably carried out under the direct super- vision of Mr. O. G. Sonneck, who was for thi^t period chief of the division. Before 1902 the chief resources of the music division were the copyright deposits. Consequently until 1902 the collection, generally speaking, repre- sented only the product of the American press, either as original compositions and books on music by Americans or reprints of European publications. The (H)llections embraced in the main musical products of the American press from 1819 on. There were, of course, the several thousand items copyrighted by European music publishers between 1891 and 1902, but this was mostly music by present-day composers. Apart from this there were some old English song collections, a few odds and ends of unknown origin, and a single edition of Beethoven's symphonies. To-day the music division has good or excellent working collections in practi- cally every field that has so far come within the sphere of concentrated action, as, for instance, cantatas, oratorios, and the like. The collection of about 20,000 librettos is the largest In existence. The published works of new com- posers who have " arrived " have been collected comprehensively ; so that the library has come to be known as the place where a thorough study of the works of new men is likely to be possible. The collection of chamber music since 1800 is perhaps excelled only by that in the Royal Library at Berlin. The orchestra scores number about 5,000 > Based largely on articles by Mr. O. 0. Sonneck, chief of the music dlYlslon. MUSIC DEPARTMENTS OF LlBRARtES. 13 symphonies, suites, concertos, nnd the like. The collection of vocal scores of operas is estimated to exceed 7,000. Of full orchestral scores of operas there are approximately 3,000, including some 500 special transcripts of old scores not obtainable from dealers. The difficulties confronting every collector of full scores of dramatic music are manifold. There is the great and sometime pro- hibitive cost of opera scores and the fact that many important old operas were never printed and are preserved only in a few libraries in autograph or con- temporary manuscript copies. Then there is the stubborn refusal of certain publishers to sell their operatic scores to libraries and the still more stubborn refusal of some libraries to permit the copying of <»ld opera scores. The library has been made the depository, largely by gift, of hundreds of the autograph scores of representative musical works by American composers. No attempt has been made to collect systematically the original editions of music published prior to 1700, as reliance has been placed upon the " Denk- mftler " and other historical collections, but numerous specimens of the various editions of different works have been acquired. Of eighteenth century music the Library of Gongiess has a collection which is more extensive than that in most Eiuropean libraries. The music division does not aspire to become a museum of costly relics. It places the best interests of the scholar above everjrthing else. The acquisition of such things as medieval missals and collections of musicians* portraits has been deferred, partly with a possible en bloo purchase in view. The library alms to have a reasonably comprehensive collection of material bearing in any way on music in America and more particularly on American music. The national libraries of Europe have but a slight interest in American music and music in America, excepting as American composers' methods or conditions have become or will become of international interest. In the Library of Congress, on the other hand, while American music is deemed to be of paramount importance, yet it collects the musical product of Europe very much in the same manner as European libraries do. The aim here is to make the collection of music and books on music sufficiently comprehensive to relieve ultimately the American scholar of the necessity of consulting European libra- ries, except for research not bearing directly or Indirectly on music in America as a reflex of music in Europe. On July 1, 1918, the music division contained 822,000 volumes, pamphlets, and pieces, housed on metallic shelving in one large room and the cellar imme- diately below. Three additional rooms are used for administrative purposes and for the catalogues. Material is classified on the shelves according to subject and not by size or by date of accession. Sheet music, as well as the bound volumes, is shelved vertically. The sheet music is kept in pamphlet boxes of a convenient size. The collection is catalogued on cards and the cata- logue Is divided into three groups corresponding with the scheme of classifi- cation: Music (M). Literature of Music (ML), and Instruction and Study (MT). The catalogue of music is again subdivided into a composer, a class or subject, and the title index. For the literature of music and instruction and study, the dictionary form of catalogue is used. There are separate indexes of early Americana and the articles In periodicals. Special attention has been paid to this periodical index. The class of literature, the histories of music and biographies of musicians, the psychology and philosophy of music, as well as essays on musical topics, are particularly well represented. For instance, about one- third of all the books on music published before the year 1800 are now in possession of the Library of Congress. The number of current as well as older periodicals is quite ex- tensive. Nearly all the American periodicals are represented, although a few of the older ones, dating from the beginning of the nineteenth century, are noticeable by their absence. Under Instruction and Study are classed not only the general theoretical works and methods but instructional editions of musical compositions, teach- ing pieces, and school readers. The most complete of all the classes under this heading are harmony, counterpoint, orchestration, singing and voice culture, and analytical guides to operas and orchestra music. These have been acquired principally through copyright channels, except in the case of rare and old edi- tions (before 1800) which have been purchased. Nine attendants give their entire time to this collection. There are 34,904 hooka on music, including about 20,000 librettos, but exclusive of several 14 MUSIC DEPARTMENTS OF LIBRARIES. thousand books on the theory of music classified with Musical Instruction and Study. Of books on music proper printed before the year 1800 there are not less than 1,500, about one-third of all such books known — a fair illustration of the music division as a treasure house of musical rarities. It is impossible to say how many volumes or pieces of music the library contains. There are 741,265 volumes and pieces of music, exclusive of many thousands classified with Musical Instruction and Study, such as etudes, teach- ing pieces, etc. There are about 5,000 rolls for player pianos, but no phonograph records. The majority of the books on music are in foreign languages, but the Library of Congress possesses the majority of those printed in English, if of any value. Possibly one-seventh of the music was publishe«l outside the United States, but it should be remembered that all music published and copyrighted in the United States comes to the Library of Congress, averaging about 25,000 accessions yearly. Foreign editions are purchased in Europe. While the library Is strong in every field of collection, as compared with other libraries, and while it contains innumerable costly and rare scores of European music, old and new, it is still preponderantly strong in American music, by virtue of the copyright act, an One includes both music and books on music. The summarized report for the four libraries replying indicates comparatively small attention to the music departments. Two libraries report increasing ^Bzbauftad. 16 MUSIC DEPARTMENTS OF LIBRABIES. interest, and three believe their present musical facilities Inadequate for the needs of the respective communities. GEORGIA. Five reports from Georgia indicate almost total stagnation in musical library activities. Not one of the five libraries has over 25 books on music, while one has 25 bound volumes of music, and 25 phonograph records are reported by one library ; no sheet music is reported at all. The single annual appropriation is $5 at one library for books on music. IDAHO. At the Lewiaton State Normal School Library there are 150 books on music and 48 separate pieces of music, with 60 player-piano rolls and 150 phonograph records. The collection is planned with a view to its use in the school, and about $50 is spent annually for books on music and $10 for rolls and records. Records are sent out as " traveling " libraries. Two recitals a year are given under library auspicea The IdaJio Free Traveling Library, located at Boise, sends out special cases of books on music, but has no special music department ILLINOIS. It«ms reported. Number of libraries reporting— 1-25 26-50 51-100 150-150, 500-700 750-950 1,000 1 2,000 3,500 4,200 13,000 Books OP Tfxusifi 9 3 15 1 7 2 2 14 7 2 4 1 2 1 1 1 1 u Bound volunies of mu- sic 2 SflDarate dIcccs 1 1 Player-piano rolls PhonoeraDh records . . . 1 1 1 2* 1 2 2 Scores. -. 1 1 2 . 1 . ChftTObeo'-inusit^ works . • Items reported. Not over 125. |2&-I5a 151- $100. 1250. 1350. S400. S500. 12,500. Annual expense for— Music 1 1 »1 2 »1 U+1 1 1 Books on mujdc .... 4 1 Library ftmd appropria Bndowment fund annrt Uon... I 1 3 1 nnrlAtifl m 1 2 Ideal aDDrooriatlon 1 1 1 1 1 1 ( Includes books on music and bound volumes of music. In Illinois 58 libraries report music departments, and the average size of the collections is above that reported by most States. There are several large col- lections and a number of special features, as listed below : Eighteen libraries use special bulletins or newspaper notice of new accessions, 11 report increasing interest, 14 stationary, and 1 a decrease since the war. Only 4 libraries believe their collections commensurate with the community's interest in music, 12 would add to the music itself, 19 to books on music, and 1 library is anxious to increase its supply of orchestral scores. The Cairo Public Library is one of the smaller collections, but the material seems to be much used, and the interest, both on the part of the public and the library force, above the average. It is hoped that funds will presently be pro- MUSIC DEPABTMEKTB OF UBRABIBS. 17 ▼ided for the addition of sheet mu&lc, rolls, and records to the present collec- tion of bound Tolnmes. The Chicago Public Library has a room demoted to music only, entirely sepa- rate from books on music. The 2,000 bound Tolnmes of music and 8,500 separate pieces are in charge of a librarian who devotes her entire time to this work. There are now 5,120 registered borrowers of music, and the collection Is deemed inadequate for the demand. The library carries no orchestral scores, but has numerous arrangements of orchestral works and 800 scores (with parts) of chamber music. "Popular home mtislc ** Is the strong field In the collection, along with songs, vocal scores of operas, and chamber music. The selection of music is dictated by the library's policy and expert advice, and the material Is acquired by purchase, $7,500 having been spent to date, with an annual ap- propriation of $500 for music; $100 of this comes from an endowment fund, and. $2,500 Is considered an Ideal annual sum for the purchase of both books * on music and music to meet the needs of this library. There are no musical Instruments In the library, though one of the 42 branches has had a gift of 500 music rolls. By agreement, the John Orerar Library, of Chicago, leaves music to the field of the Newberry Library. The Crerar Library, however, collects books on the manufacture and history of musical instruments and on the theory of musical sound. The Netoberry Library, of Chicago, has 12,829 volumes and pamphlets listed under music. Each individual work is counted as one, not by collective bindings. There are 220 orchestral scores and 33 chamber music works. There is a col- lection (not recent) of about 4,000 volumes on hymnology, and the private library of the late Theodore Thomas is also found here. The general collection is strong in operas, complete works of composers, older works on theory, hym- nology, and church music. Gifts are comparatively rare; purchases are made in accordance with the library policy. Opportunity for musical research is afforded in the way of critical editions of compositions, complete works, of com- posers, minute differences of edition in hymn books, full scores of operas, and unlndexed clippings relating to concerts. The annual expenditure is $450 for books on music. Owing to a change in the policy of the library, which resulted in specializing on literature and history, and the transfer of a large amount of duplicate music to the circulation facilities of the Chicago Public Library, the collections of the Newberry Library (reference only) show a decreased use in recent years. The number of volumes used in 1917 was 3,263. Though the pres- ent policy precludes large purchases of books on music, the expenditure las|: year In this line was about 3 per cent of the total outlay for book acquisition, and the library still favors the addition of full scores and books on music. Special collections, acquired by the library. In addition to. the Theodore Thomas library, are those of Count Resse (Florence), Lob and Fuchs (Chicago), and Main (New York). The Virginia Library of MeOormiek Theological Seminary, in Chicago, is spelally strong in church music and hymnology. The collection, largely ac- quired by gift, Includes 1,(KX) books on music and 750 bound volumes of music. The Evansion Public Library has 2,000 volumes on and of music, 897 separate pieces of music, and 652 player-piano rolls. There Is the rather unusual provi- sion that readers are allowed, in addition to the usual number of books on a card, two books on music, two volumes of printed music, and two pianola rolls. 13m strong feature of this library is its collection of vocal scores of operas. It has 88 chamber music works and purchases not only piano music for two or four hands, 70206'— 22 ^8 18 MUSIC DKPAETMSNXS OF LIBRARIES. bat also two-piano music. On the music department $2,000 has thus far been spent, and there is an annual income from an endowment fund of $822.50 for music department purchases. The interest is increasing, and last year 1,600 persons used the music collection ; the relative order of use being books on music, music, and music rolls. Readers have the use of a piano and player-piano in the library. The printed catalogue of the Ck)e Music Collection and other musical literature in the Evanston Public Library Is a book of 126 pages, dated 1016, and is valu- able as one of the latest and most complete lists of its kind. Two squares from the Evanston Public Library is the school of music of Northtoestem UniverMy, and here again is an example of sensible cooperation In library matters. As the public library is well suited for general use, the university library specializes. It has 450 books on music and 25 bound volumes of music, with thousands of unbound pieces which are regarded as part of the teaching equipment There are about 200 orchestral scores, with many* piano arrangements for two and four handa The need of a chamber music collection is obviated by a large collection owned by a member of the faculty. The strong point of the library is new publications. There are no gifts, everything being purchased in accordance with the policy of the library and faculty advice. An appropriation from library funds permits the annual outlay of $400 for music and $100 for books on music. The Peoria Public Library published a 56-page list of music and books on music and musicians in March, 1915. It summarizes 600 books on music and 060 bound volumes of music, selected with a view to general use. The Rockford Public Library has 600 books on music and 150 bound volumes of music, all acquired by purchase. It has a special card index to all song collections, to which the patrons are partial. About $75 a year is spent on the music department, which seems to satisfy the local demand. The library of the University of IlUnoi9, at XTrbana, has 600 books on music and 4.215 volumes and cardboard-bound pieces of music. There are about 100 orchestral scores, and this number is increased yearly. There are also 100 chamber music works. The specialties are organ music, books on music, piano and string instrument music. Practically all of this library has been ac- quired by purchase, and about $3,000 has been spent thus far, the annual ap- propriation for the library being $400. There is opportunity for Intensive study of organ music, history of music, and the classic cantata field. About 2,000 persons use the library each year, but since no publicity means are used the public is not acquainted with the scope and size of the music collection. The policy of the library is to add both books and music in larger measure than in the past. Music rolls are used only in the school proper, not in the library. INDIANA. Number of institutions reporting— Items reported 1-26 96-M ft&-100 160-900 226-860 600-600 700-860 1,800 1,860 2,475 ^dftnVa cm miivin ....... 7 6 7 2 14 2 3 4 2' 1 1 1 1 1 1 Bound Yoliimes of music fl^naraf n tiImiM ......... 1 2 1 2 Jrlliluogrepu rscuius. .....•••.. Mavtat mlra . ... 1 .riByer ruua ..•.....•.••••••••• i* 2 2 1 1 1 ^i.A«Mt\Ar miidi* ivnrVv :::::::i :.;. : 1 I KXrSIO DBPASTMBNT8 OF T.TBBAKTKS. 19 In Indiana the mnsic library situation appears to be in a healthy and encour- aging condition ; 41 libraries report music sections and 18 of these believe their music facilities should be enlarged to meet the demands of the communities; 14 libraries report increasing interest in music, 7 stationary, and 1 decreasing. There are few large collections of music in these libraries, tmt a good distribu- tion of material. Pianos and phonographs are more frequently found in libra- ries here than in most Eastern States. Nearly one-half of the Indiana libraries u^e some special means of announcing accessions, and in general there is a refreshing spirit about the reports. The Qary Public Library has an unusual number of player-piano rolls, 1,100. For these, the 100 books on music and the 150 bound volumes of music, the average number of users in a year is 11,000. There is a piano and player-piano in the library, and a phonograph is borrowed for special use. Lecture recitals are given under the auspices of the library, and at least the expenses of the speakers are paid. The first list of roll titles, comprising over 500 selections, was published in a bulletin of August, 1915. At Muncie an upbuilding of the music section in the public library is in progress. Each month a few new books on music and of music are added and some publicity given in the newspapers. As soon as funds and ^ace will per- mit band and orchestra music, records, and rolls will be added. Five musical periodicals are on the subscription list for this year. At Princeton the interest of two teachers of music in the schools is noted at the Public Library. The collection of books about music numbers 75, fairly well selected. The music library at 8i, Meinrad Abbey, St Meinrad, contains 160 books on music, 700 bound volumes of music, 1,300 separate pieces, 200 player-piano rolls, and 800 records, only used by those living in the institution. Especial attention has been given to works on the Gregorian chant Frequent concerts and phonograph programs are given, with explanatory lectures. The Public Library at South Bend works with the teachers of the city and with the various associations in music study, furnishing books, making bibli- ographies, assisting in program making, speaking before assemblies, and gen- erally showing that the library is willing to cooperate. The result is a steadily increasing interest in the music section, and it is hoped that both facilities and the collection itself may soon be largely developed. The Public Library at Tipton has monthly lectures and lecture recitals, and some Sunday afternoon musicales, working in conjunction with the local music dub. Some lecturers are paid. There are 100 volumes each of books on music and bound music and 25 phonograph records. IOWA. Items reported. Number of inetitatioiis reportiiif-> 1-35 26-60 66-100 120-200 226-8fi0 (MXMnO 1,500 6,500 6,000 Blm on imiilo. 14 13 2 1 1 1 2 9 4 2* 1 7 1 1 1 6 1 1 RiwrnH VAlnmcM nf mimlA . . 1 Sepnrste pteoM .............. 1 PlftTffr rofiff. - PhoDosmkh reeordB. BoorBs. . , C%Hinb0r muvie worfni ....... 1 ■ 20 MUSIC DEPABTMEKTS OF LIBBAMES. Items reported. • Number of institutions reportlnf— •1-25 S3(HW 160 SlOO $200 $300-400 $3/M» Aequtettion oo«»t . 1 8 a 1 1 .J 2 1 Annual expense for— Mtuie 2 3 1 Books on iniwic ^ . 4 2 * , * Rolls and recordB - In Iowa general music library conditions strongly resemble those in Indiana ; 45 libraries report music sections, and iS of these say interest is increasing, 7 stationary, but none report a decrease. Bulletins and special notices of accessions are frequently used. The ideal annual appropriations for music section purposes are set high, only one at $35, two at $100, two at $500, one at $700, one at $2,000, and one at $6,000. The library of the Davenport Academy of Sciences, at Davenport, does not contain a music department, but does have some musical boolcs. In Its fairly large anthropological and ethnological collection there is considerable mate- rial on primitive music and the music of primitive peoples, with some corre- sponding instruments. Some material for students might also be found in the historical collections. Annually 6,000 people use the library of the Orinnell College school of music, at GrlnneU. This collection has 275 books on music, 85 bound volumes of music, 6,900 separate pieces of music in the circulating section, and a large supply of choir and oratorio music for college use. There are 45 rolls and 50 records, with 60 orchestral scores and 120 chamber music works. The policy has been to develop a working collection in all departments for college and music students; therefore the collection is strongest in musical literature and piano music. The annual expense is about $200 for music, $45 for books on music, $35 for records, and $10 for rolls; and there is a desire to increase the last two items. There is an effort to have the complete works of classical composers. The extension of the use of the library to other communities is limited by financial necessity, but the library will be glad to cooperate in any means which may be devised to assist in such extension of this work. The Public Library at Siouw City was responsible for three years for a series ' of Sunday afternoon concerts, held during the winter months at the library. The past season a municipal orchestra was organized, and the Sunday after- noon concert work is carried on by this organization on a much larger scale. The lotoa College for the Blind, at Vinton, has 300 pieces of music in New Tork point, and 500 pieces in staff notation, with 80 books on music. Music is sent out to former students. KANSAS. Nnmber of libraries reporting— 1-25 95-49 50-85 100 150-175 200 400 500 i,ood Books on musU) a 1 1 7 S 1 9 3 9 1 1 i" 1 Boand vnlnmefl of mnsle flenarate nteoM. 2 Pbonocranh reoords 1 1 Orflhfwnai soons 1 1 ICUSIO DSPABTMBNT8 OF UBBABIBS. 21 f In Kansas not one of the 27 libraries reporting mentions a player piano or a roll, though phonographs and records are fairly common. The average size of the collections of books on music is fair. Six libraries report increasing in- terest, one stationary ; the others are noncommittal, though seven libraries be- ' lieve their present collections of music sufficient for the demands of the com- munity. In the library of the University of Kansas, at Lawrence* one librarian gives , her time largely to the collection of 400 books on music, 500 bound volumes of music, and 50 separate pieces ; 500 yictr61fl records arie kept In a separate col- lection. The purchase of orchestral scores is Just beginning, 20 being acquired to date, with 50 chamber music works. The policy has been to provide reference works for students ; therefore the strong fields of the library are the literature ^ of music, folk songs, songs and vocal scores of operas. The collection to date has cost $2,500; there is an annual appropriation of $300 from the library funds, of which $200 is used for music and $100 for books on music. There is an additional annual expense of $100 for recorda The library believes that $750 could well be spent yearly on the music and books to meet the demand. Thirteen sets of music records, each accompanied by a typewritten talk on some phase of music, are sent out as traveling libraries ; 288 of these programs were given in 1916-17. The printed circular of this plan has the title " More and bet- ter music for Kansas." Public-school music is receiving special attention. Books and music are loaned to high schools and clubs requesting such service. The Free Puhlio Library at Salina notes the fact that the public is Just be- ginning to realize the possibilities of the music section. It is hoped that a good line of phonograph records may soon be Installed for circulation. The Kansas State Normal ScJiool lAbrary^ at Emporia, has about 1,000 books on music and 800 bound volumes of music. No fixed amount is appropriated annually for music, but $150 is regarded as the ideal annual sum to meet the needs. Interest is increasing, and there are four calls for books on music to one for music. Traveling libraries are famished. KENTUCKY. Of the 7 libraries In Kentucky r^^orting music sections 6 are below 75 volumes of books on music or bound volumes of music. The seventh is the Free Public Library at LouisviUe, where the music department seems to receive special attention. Its contents are set forth in an attractive booklet of 74 pages, fully and elaborately classified. The collection includes a total of 4,000 volumes on and of music and of unbound pieces, evidently w^l chosen for general use and without emphasis of special departments. There are good collections of operatic vocal scores, children's songs, some two-piano music, quite a list of modem orchestral scores, music by Kentucky composers, and some books for the blind. The entire plan might well be taken as an example of suc- cessful choice and management Music is circulated on r^^ilar library cards, so it does not figure as a separate item ; 5,741 books on and of music were bor- rowed last year. There is a loan system with other libraries, and the public library works actively with the University of Louisville and the LouisviUe Conservatory of Music. Mention is made of tlie aid and advice of musicians and music lovers in the city. LOUISIANA. Three of the four Louisiana libraries reporting a music section have consider- able departments, and each of the three reports increasing interest. The New Orleans Public Library aims to provide only for the general music lover. It has 800 books on music and 838 bound volumes of music ; no separate 22 MUSIC DEPABTMBHTTS OF LIBRABIES. pieces, rolls, or records; $75 anDually is spent on the music department, but the library regards $300 as the ideal sum for this purpose. Three books on music are borrowed to one volume of bound music. The library keeps in con- stant touch with the music teachers' association of New Orleans. The Howard Memorial Library of Neto Orleans specializes on music by local composers or printed in New Orleans, and has 510 separate pieces in this (dass as a part of its general collection of Louisiana literature. In addition there are in the music alcove 228 books on music and 20 bound volumes of music. This is a reference library of 50,000 volumes, and the preference of the patrons is decidedly in favor of the books on music, for which the sum of $20 is s])ent annually. At the H. Sophie Newoomh Memorial College the library has 500 books on music, 600 bound volumes of music, 350 separate pieces, 244 rolls, and 25 records. This library has only been in existence eight years. It regards the collection as well balanced, with perhaps some emphasis on piano, organ, and vocal music, and biography. Two thousand dollars has been spent on the collec- tion, and there is an annual music department appropriation of $200 from library funda MAINE. Items reported. Number of libraries reporting— 1-25 2fr-49 fiO 80-100 200 250 300 1,100 Books on music 10 4 3 i' 3 3 4 1 1 2 1 1 Bound Tokmies of music Semnkte nieflw- t-... ^,,-^^--,,^- 1 Player roDs 2 Phonograph records 1 Scores 1 1 Chftinher miuic works Items reported. Number of libraries reporting— $5 tio 120 $25 S50 seo 175 $100 $125 Acquisition cost 1 1 1 Annual expense for-> Music 1 1 Books on music 1 1 1 1 Rolls and records Ideal annronriations 1 1 In Maine a general spirit of caution seems to pervade music section expenses,, as will be noted from the attached table. None of the 25 libraries reporting music sections are exclusively reference libraries, though 5 are both reference and circulating. Three report increasing interest* 8 stationary, while 17 make no comment The Public Library at Auburn has a comparatively new music section, acquired partly by gift and partly by purchase. Without making a specialty of music, certain privileges are allowed music borrowers upon occasion, and trav- eling libraries are furnished upon request of rural schools. The Bowdoin College Library, at Brunswick, collects musical settings of Long- fellow's words, and at present has nearly 1,000 such titles. Courses in music have only been instituted in the college during the past six years, during whi<^ time the bulk of the music collection has been acquired. MUSIC DEPABTMEKTB OF UBBABIBS. 23 There are now 190 books on music, 200 bound volumes of music, about 1,100 separate pieces, 25 player-piano rolls, over 300 records, and 25 orchestral rec- ords in the library. These have been selected to further the college musie courses, and the annual expense for this material is now about |225. MARYLAND. Itams reported. Number of librBries reporting— 1-26 2&-49 50 86 165 260 900 400 500 1,000 1,600 1,800 Books on mmic 3 2 1 ...... 1 ...... 1 1 1 Bound yohunes of music . . . 1 1 Separate pieces 1 1 1 Scores 1 Quunber music works 1 In Maryland at least two of the eight libraries reporting music departments have important collections. Three are reference libraries and four are circu- lating or circulating and reference. Increasing interest is reported by two, and decreasing interest by one. Few figures as to cost or music departmoit appropriations are given. The library of the Peabody InatUute of the city of Baltimore is separate from that of the Peabody Conservatory of Music. The former has 1,600 books on music and 400 bound volumes of music, with SOO orchestral scores. It affords facilities for serious study in the history of music and musical literature. The average number of persons using this reference library annually is 1,000, of whom 00 per coit use the boolcs on music. The Enoch Pratt Free Library of Baltimore has about 1,000 books on muslc^ 1,800 bound volumes of music, 60 orchestral scores, and 500 chamber musle works. The strong points are the collections of vocal and piano music, which afford material for serious study. On music $75 is spent annually and $100 on books about music, mostly from library funds proper. Concerts are given at the branch libraries, of which there are 18. About 50 lectures or lecture recitals, with unpaid lectures, are given annually under library auspices. MASSACHUSETTS. Number of libraries reporting— Items reported. 1-25 2&-49 50-99 100-149 150-200 250-350 400 500 600-700 1,000 Over 1,00QL Bound volumes of muirto. ... .. a . . . . 52 12 18 3 17 7 2 1 1 2 5 9 6 i" i* 5 3 7 2 3 5 4 6 1 1 8 2 4 e 1 • 7 SoDftTBte nieces f Flayer-piano roils PhonoeraDli records. . . 1 2 8 4 5" 2 1 1 4 Scores 2 1 1 1 24 MUSIC DBPABXMBNTS OF UBRABIBS. Number of libraries reporting— Items reported. 125 $20-50 $51-09 $100 $125 $aoo $250 $800 $500 Oyer $1,000. Annual expemea. Total for music sec- tion 3 1 1 4 2 2 1 1 • 2 2 In addition to follow- ing: For music For books on music 4 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 For rolls and records . Appropriation*. IPrnm lihrarv funds 1 1 1 1 i" 1 1 1 From endowment. , . 1 Fram special funds. . 1 1 1 The above does not include the library of Harvard University, one of the Important music libraries of the United States, which failed to answer the questionnaire. In 1918, Massachusetts reported 343 libraries with 5,000 volumes or over, somewhat over one-ninth of the total of such libraries in the United States, and exceeding New York with its 326 libraries of this size. Of these Massachu- setts libraries, 142 report music sections, of sizes tabulated herewith. As usual in eastern as compared with western libraries, player-piano and phonograph material is sparsely represented; 25 libraries report increasing interest in music, 16 stationary, and only 1 decreasing. Many special features are noted In the following accounts of individual libraries. The Botton Public Library is widely known for the possession of the Allen A. Brown collection, which supplements the general music collection of the library. The " music room " now contains 15,000 books on music, and 26,000 bound volumes of music. Two librarians give their entire time, and a third part time to the musical collection. Neither rolls nor records find place in this library. There are now 4,000 orchestral scores listed. Scores of important works are purchased whenever possible, in preference to pianoforte arrangements. Chamber music works are represented to the number of 950. While the collection is intended to be as complete as possible, it is specially strong in opera scores, part songs, orchestral music, and the history of music, particularly of Boston. The catalogue of the Allen A. Brown collection is published in four volumes. About $500 is now spent annually on music ; the expense of l>ooks on music Is not available as a separate item. Last year 21,000 persons used the music collection, and the interest is increasing. The inter-library loan system is used, but traveling libraries are not furnished. Six lectures or lecture-recitals are given annually, with no fees for the lecturers. The story of the Allen A. Brown collection is told by Miss Barbara Duncan in an entertaining article in The Library Journal for August, 1915. From this source may be gleaned the following statements: The scores contain innumerable programs, newspaper clippings, portraits, etc., relating to the particular works. A set of volumes, indexed, contain programs, newspaper criticisms, personal notices of musicians, and all matters of musical interest in Boston during the past 50 years. A similar system has been followed for items of general musical interest The collection of autograph scores has not been MUSIC DEPARTMENTS OF LIBBABIES. 25 generally followed, although the American composers Paine, Buck, Converse, Foote, Ohadwick, and Gllhert are so represented. The most unique item of early American music is Francis Hopkinson^s " Seven Songs " (1788), of which only one other copy is known. The operatic section of the collection is annotated as are other works, and contains many rare and valuable works. At Boston is also the library of the Neio England Conservatory of Music. The 5,000 volumes of music and books on music are in charge of one librarian (trained as a music librarian) and two assistants. There are 14,0(X) actual users of the collection annually, and there are both reference and circulating departments. The Harvard Musical Association Library in Boston has 9,000 volumes of music and boolcs. Some volumes contain two to a dozra works, bound together. Orchestral scores number 400, and chamber music works 285. No specialties have been followed in making the collection, which aCTords opportunities for the serious student in many fields. About $20,000 has been spent to date on the library, and there is an annual outlay of $500 for books and music. The average number of actual users of the library annually is 000. A piano is available in the library. The Musical Observer of October, 1900, contains a liistorical account of the Harvard Musical Association, written by Ernest O. Hiler. This reviews the organization, its objects, and achievements, in addition to the library. The Congregational Library^ 14 Beacon Street, Boston, has 778 books classed under hymnology ; 62 of these are books on hymns and hymnists, and 711 are largely hymnals. The proximity of the research collections at Boston and Cambridge has had an effect on the Public Library of Brookline, in that the latter has directed its efforts toward a general collection for popular use. It now numbers 675 books on music and 1,875 titles of music in volumes or covers. There are 17 volumes of orchestral scores and 190 volumes of chamber music. Arrangements are bought in preference to orchestral scores, largely in piano duet form, but also for solo and two pianos. One thousand eight hundred and eighty-seven dollars has been spent on acquiring the collection, and from $25 to $50 annually for music; 1,803 volumes of music were borrowed In 1917. With an assistant specially for the music section, it is believed the work' of this department could be largely expanded to good advantage. In the library of Andover-Harvard Theological Seminary, at Cambridge, 1,250 volumes on and of music, exclusively in the departments of hymnology and church music, are found. This library is administered in close affiliation with that of Harvard University, and the collections of both libraries are accessible to all students. The Cambridge Public Library has 989 books on music and 801 bound vol- umes of music, with 116 orchestral scores and 41 chamber-music scores. The aim is to make it a "popular" collection in the best sense, and suggestions from patrons are considered. One hundred and seventy-five dollars Is spent annually on the music department, but $1,0(K) would be welcome, as interest is increasing. There is an endowment fund of $5,000, the interest from which goes to the music department. Readers have the use of a piano in the library, and this is one of the few eastern libraries that hopes to add a department of phonograph records. Books, but not music, are furnished for traveling libraries. The library of the late Francis H. Jenks, consisting of music literature and scores, the latter plentifully annotated with reviews and critit^isms. was pre- sented to the Fiichburg Public Library, at Fitchburg, by Herbert I. Wallace in 70206'— 22 1 26 MUSIC DEPARTMENTS OF LIBRABIES. 1905. The i^>ecial catalogue of this collection is printed separately, as are two other music lists of this. library. On music 072 boolcs and 2,416 bound volumes constitute the total collection at present, with 68 orchestral scores and 236 chamber music works. Tlie strong points are the full scores of operas and oratorios, anuotateil by Mr. Jenks, piano music, and piano arrangements, for two, four, and eight hands. For music $100 is spent annually, while books are bought from the general fund. The circulation divides 60 per cent for music and 40 per cent for music books, with increasing interest In the department The library cooperates with the State normal and high schools, also with the Woman's Club. The Newton Free Library, at Newton, engaged Mr. Wallace Goodrich to select, in Europe, a representative collection of classical music which has proven adequate to the demand ; 2,000 books on music, 1,000 bound volumes, and 200 separate pieces of music constitute the collection, a printed catalogue of which was issued in 1910. Music is purchased as needed from an endowment fund. The Forbes Library, at Northampton, has 1,250 books on music, about 6,000 bound volumes of music, and 11,054 unbound pieces of music. One librarian gives her entire time to the music department, in which increased interest is reported. No count is kept of readers, but about 6,000 works were issued in 1916. Five hundred to one thousand dollars is counted the ideal sum for the annual pur- chases of the music department. There are four victrolas, with 38 records, for school use only. Orchestral scores of symphonies, with piano solo and duet arrangements, are bought ; the library now has 250 scores and 20 chamber music works. There are complete editions of Bach, H&ndel, Schumann, Schubert, Palestrina, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Gr^try, SchUtz, and the Denkmdler der Ton- kunst. In addition, the library has large collections of songs, piano music, and vocal scores of operas. Music exhibits and local press publicity stimulate interest in the music section. The Smith College Library, at Northampton, has 572 books on music, 850 bound volumes of music, 2,239 unbound pieces of music, 100 pianola rolls, and 300 records. French and German books make about one-sixteenth of the total. There are 250 orchestral scores and 40 of chamber music. Annually $200 is expended for music and $100 for books on music, of which sums $100 is from library funds proper and the balance from a special fund. Interest in the col- lection is increasing, and the library would gladly spend $500 annually for music and books on music. Of the calls, 20 per cent are for rolls and records ; there is a piano, player piano, and victrola in the library. The Berkshire Athenceum and Museum, at Pittsfield, has a good collection of " Shaker " music and a fair collection of church music. In all, there are 700 books on music, 150 bound volumes, and 200 separate pieces of music, with 24 . phonograph records. Interest in the music section is growing steadily. The Salem Public Library at Salem has 500 books on music, but no music. A bulletin largely devoted to the music section was published in January, 1901. Mount Holyoke College l/ibf^ary, at South Hadley, is built up with a view to student needs, though visitors in the main library are always welcome. The collection consists of 390 books on music, 371 bound volumes, and 50 pieces of music, 12 player-piano rolls, and 150 phonograph records. So far it has cost at least $2,000, and $290 is annually appropriated by the college for additions. This sum is divided into an allowance of $150 for music, $100 for books on music, and $40 for rolls and records. In some years $200 or $300 additional ac- crues from gifts. There are few scores or chamber-music works at present, piano-solo arrangements being preferred for practical purposes. No special line of collection has been followed, but the complete edition of Bach's works has been acquired. MUSIC DEPARTMENTS OF LIBRARIES. 27 The City Library of Springfield finds that music and books on music amount to 2 per cent of the entire library circulation. It is eighth among 10 classes, ranking higher than history, biography, or travel; 9,479 works in the music collection were taken out last year. The library cooperates with music clubs and leaders in community work. It displays notices of coming musical events in New York and Boston, as well as local affairs. The shelves are open and very accessible in a large, well-lighted room. While attendants are always ready to assist, people quietly help themselves to a surprising degree. The collection includes 1,000 titles of books on music and many duplicate copies. Whatever music is bought in sheet form is collected and bound ; the music now aggregates 2,200 titles ; 100 orchestral scores have been purchased to answer a demand, and there are 85 titles of chamber music works. No effort has been made to develop any one field of the collection, but it affords some opportunity for research work in the line of hymnology and glees. About $7,000 has been spent on the music section since 1004, and there is an annual appropriation of $550 from an endowment fund. The library has a very full general card catalogue, a title index of song and piano collections, and a praiseworthy sepa- rately printed catalogue of the music section. The library bulletin for October, 1915, was largely devoted to music, and is valuable as a suggestive list for general readers and librarians. Special lists of music appreciation and music for beginners are also published. The interlibrary loan system is occasionally used, and one lecture has recently been given as an experiment. Few library reports give more encouraging evidence of activity along sensible and popular lines so far as the music department is concerned. The fine library of the late Frederic Louis Ritter, music historian, former pro- fessor at Vassar College, formed the nucleus of the Tufts College Library at Med- ford (post office. Tufts College). This collection is rich in older works, some in fine and rare editions, and in original books and scores of the sixteenth, seven- teenth, and eighteenth centuries. There is no epoch in musical history up to 1800 which is not represented sufficiently to make possible a direct study from this material The printed lists are sadly out of date, but the roll catalogue is more nearly complete. The printed collection is made up of 2,000 books on music, 000 bound volumes of music, and 1,400 separate pieces. The piano rolls number 1,400, one of the largest collections in the country, and are in very constant use. There are 400 orchestral scores and 60 chamber music works. All fields are well represented except music by American composers, but works of historical significance are probably the specialty. About $75 is expended an- nually for additions to the music section. PerkkM Institution for the Blinds at Watertown, has 250 books on music, 800 bound volumes, and 10,000 separate pieces of music. Piano and vocal music, both solo and chorus, are the special fields. In addition to the regular catalogue there is a Braille catalogue and a Braille thematic catalogue of piano music The average number of library users is 2,000 per year, and readers have the use of a piano in the library. Braille music for the blind is sent all over the United States free of postage, and the average is 700 calls per year for this privilege. The library of Wellesley College, at Wellesley, is planned on general lines for students of practical and theoretical music. It now has 600 bo^ks on music, 380 bound volumes and 136 unbound pieces of music, 182 player piano rolls, and 78 phonograph records. From $1,500 to $2,000 is the estimated cost of this material, and there is an annual appropriation of $130 for music and books on music, while $25 annually, charged as a music department expense, goes to the purchase of rolls and records. The Whitinwille Social Library, at WhitinsviUe, has but a small collection of books on music, but is marked by two unique features. One is that when scenes 28 MUSIC DEPARTMENTS OF LIBRARIES. fi'oin a well-known oi)era are given at the moving pictures, books containing the story of such operas are advertised in the local papers. The other fact is that the librarian loans four-hand arrangements of standard orchestral compositions to stud; clubs from a personal collection. In the library of the American Antiquarian Society at Worcester are 1,000 books on music and psalmody, nearly all published in the United States before 1870. The Free Public Library at Worcester has 600 books on music (practically all in English), 1,400 bound volumes of music, and 800 unbound pieces, with 10 orchestral scores. A printed catalogue of music was issued in ijDOO, and a special card catalogue is placed in the music alcove. Over 6,000 persons use the music department annually, and the relative percentages are 60 per cent for music and 40 per cent for books oa music. Three branch libraries have small music collections. Lack of space Ib the antiquated main library building prevents an extension of the music work. MICHIGAN. Number of libraries reporting— Itenu) reported. 1-25 26-4» 50 75-W 100 125- 150 200 250 300- 400 560 800 1,200 1 %000 Books on music Bound volumes of 9 8 1 3 2 6 2 3 1 3 4 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 4 1 Separate i>ieces Phonograph records . Scores 1 1 1 1 1 1 In Michigan, 41 libraries report music sections, rather above the average in size, but only 5 libraries can estimate the cost of the material, and In no case stated is it above $500. Eight libraries report increased Interest in music, seven stationary, and none decreasing. One library reports an annual ex- penditure of $125 for rolls and records, and five others (all that mention the .subject) have an annual expense of $25 for music department purchases. The library of the University of Michigan, at Ann Arbor, has followed the policy of avoiding works of only passing interest. There are now 383 orchestral scores in the library, and special stress will be laid on this division. There will also be a demand for books of research value in the future. There are 290 titles of chamber music works, mostly with parts. By request about 1,500 titles, including orchestral scores, historical works on theory, etc., and a large number of chamber music works, will eventually become available. The present collec- tion includes 1,287 books on music and 8,839 bound volumes or titles of music. History, biography, and theoretical works make the largest group in the books on music, while piano, orchestral scores, chamber music, anthems, and part songs are the strongest in the music class. The Detroit Public Library will soon occupy a new building, in which ample accommodations have been reserved for a department of drama and music. Under the conditions heretofore prevailing, accommodations for special de- partments were not available, and no special attention could be paid to the music section. To the Public Library at Orand Rapids was presented the library of the late Mrs. Charles B. Kelsey. A substantial gift of music and vocal scores of operas w^as made by the civic music committee of the association of commerce. MUSIC DEPABTMENTS OF LIBRARIES. 29 and donations have also been made by local musicians. Altogether there are now 700 books on music, 60 bound volumes of music, and about 150 pieces. No separate account is kept for music>department expenses^ but the library would like to gfisod $250 to $500 annually on this section. The interest is increanlng, ana, with a larger collection, there would be much greater use. The library- bulletin for March, 1917, contains a list of the music, but not of the booksarate pieces Player-piano rolls Phonograph records Orchestral scores Chamber mosio works . . . Number o( libraries reporting— 1-25 81 13 6 1 fiO-QB 10(>>140 15 8 3 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 2 150-200 8 1 1 8 1 300-500 9 4 000-800 3 1 1,000 Over 1,000 9 7 6 Items reported. Aqulsition cost Annual expense far- Music Books on music Rolls and records libraryfund appropriation Endowment fund appro- priation Speclalfunds Ideal appropriation Number of libraries reporting—- 81-825 3 'i* 820-840 800 2 2 1 876 1 12 8100 4 "i 8125 2 1 8150 8175 8200 »1 8500 2 1 8000 »1 Over 81.000 I Includes music, books, rolls, and records. New York State, with 826 libraries of 5,000 volumes or more, is second only to Massachusetts, with its S48 such collections. Music sections are reported by lOi libraries, and the collation of the reports brings to light some interesting points. Over one-balf would be classed as small musical collections, the middle 84 MTJSIO DBFABTBCENTS OF UBRABIES. ground is rather sparsely filled, and there are some magnificent collections. Seven libraries report player-piano rolls, and the same number provide phono- graph records. Orchestral scores are fairly plentiful, but chamber music is not so well represented. Only eight libraries report considerable acquisitions by gift, and not one reports interest in the suggestions of music dealers or pub- lishers. CJoraparatlvely few libraries have annual appropriations for the music section, and these are relatively small sums; 21 libraries report in- creasing Interest, 14 stationary, and none a decrease; 17 libraries believe their reports do not represent the community's Interest in music, while 5 report afilrmatively ; 14 believe the music department expenditures inadequate, 21 are content with the past record, 11 think the demands of the community exceed the libraries' musical resources, 19 take the opposite view. The ideal annual appropriation for music, if mentioned, is usually small; one library considers $10,000 the Ideal sum, and another wants "as much as we can get"; 20 libraries would add to books on music, 16 to the music, and only 2 wodld invest In more rolls or records. Six libraries have a piano in the library, 3 have player pianos, and 5 have phonographs. Fiv« libraries have lectures or lecture-recitals under library auspices, and the lecturers, except In one instance, are paid. Wells College Library, at Aurora, has 1,349 books on music, of which 348 are biographies and 828 bound volumes of music. Exactly 600 books are in foreign languages. There are 29 orchestral scores and 203 of chamber music. Five thousand three hundred and sixty dollars has been spent on the acquisi- tion of the collection, and there have been many fine gifts. The annual appro- priation, from library funds, is $400, which Is regarded as sufficient for the needs of the institution. Suggestions for purchase are made by the college music department, and there is a preference for complete editions. The Public Library at BingKamton has a total of 470 volumes of music and books on music. A neat booklet entitled " Music and Musicians " is the finding list up to 1917. Newspaper notices of new accessions are written by members of the library staff and Include short descriptive notes. The cooperation of a local organist and teacher, Francis J. 0'Ck>nner, in the building of the collection is noted. The PubUo Library of Brooklyn has a new building in process of construction and expects to develop its collection " along definitely helpful lines " with the new facilities. The library now has about 1,500 books on music and 6,000 volumes of bound music. As separate statistics are not now kept for music, little can be said about the circulation, but interest is increasing, and during the musical season there are not sufllcient copies of operas, etc., to meet the demand. The Public Library of Buffalo has never been able to enter the field of music to any extent excepting to supply books on music. It has cared for and cata- logued gifts of music and has purchased some Items at patrons' request. The collection now includes more than 1,300 books on music, including many dupli- cates, more than 1,400 bound volumes of music, 138 pamphlet librettos, and 78 bound librettos. The unbound pieces of music number 2,925 titles, and include 23,200 pieces, counting each vocal and instrumental part and duplicates. Sev- eral musicians and musical associations have presented the library collections of music. There are 88 titles of orchestral scores and orchestral parts for 72 operas and oratorios. Chamber music works for three or more instruments num- ber 11. The collection of violin music is preponderantly strong, songs, vocal scores of operas, and church music are also strong fields. The library is fully catalogued, special gifts are noticed in annual reports, publicity is given through MUSIO DEPARTMENTS OF LIBRARTES, 35 newspaper articles, and special lists are famished for music festivals and musi- cal evenings. Interest Is increasing, and though the present collection may meet the demand of the library, it does not meet the demand of the community, and there is a great field to be developed if means were provided. The library re- gards the demand for books as the first consideration. The library of CaniHut College, Bufl!alo, is of a private rather than a public nature. It is a fairly extensive collection of works in almost every field of music, particularly strong in church music and music for orchestra, with a rather complete collection of standard hymnals. The music division of the Neto York City Public Library is well described in three articles furnished by the library. The music division of the New York Public Library consists of two separate parts. The first part is the Joseph W. Drezel collection, privately founded in 1858 by Mr. Drez^, of Philadelphia, by the purchase of a very complete and rich collection of music, books relating to music, autographs of famous musicians, portraits, etc., which had been the property of Mr. H. F. Albrecht, member of the Germanic Musical Society, who spent over 13 years (1845- 1868) in various countries, busy with the formation of this collection. Later on the collection was enlarged by the addition of the music library of Dr. B. La Roche, consisting of works in English and French; also rare books in Latin and Greek languages, and also by the importation of books from Europe, especially Dr. Edward Rimbault*s library, from which several impor- tant works were purchased by Mr. Drexel in London at an auction. Thus this collection came to contain musical writings from the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries in German, En^sh, French, Italian, Spanish, and Dutch, including the history of music, the biography of celebrated musicians, dictionaries of music, the theory of musical composition, instruction books for voice and instruments, works on acoustics or the science of sound, essays on musical expression, musical journals, reports and contributions of musical societies, almanacs, descriptions of musical festivals, musical travels, musical novels, etc. The total collection was presented to the Lenox Library by Mr. Drexel in 1888 and was transferred with the Lenox Library to the new building at Fifth Avenue and Forty-second Street The second part of the music division is formed by the books and practical music formerly in the Ajstor and Lenox Libraries, some of these books are duplicates or different editions of works contained in the Drexel collection, but the larger parts consist of literature and music from about 1850 up to date, formed by steady purchases by the library administration and by gifts from various persons. — Edward Silaky, on ** The Music Division of the N, 7. Pub. Library,*' in Proc MuHc Teacher's Nat. Assoc., 1914, No. 9, pp. 211-212. While the Lenox Library's chief interest as a music library lay in the Drexel collection, it did not refrain entirely from adding to its shelves a few books on music and important compositions published after Mr. DrexeVs death. At the same time the Astor Library was buying such music and books on music as it believed were very important, like the Pal^graphie Musicale, some of the publications of the Plalnsong and Medieval Society, Eitner's Publikationen alterer Musikwerke, Maldeghem*a Tresor Musical, and the Denkm&ler deutscher Tonkunst ; also many of the complete editions of the classic masters and some important files of American and European musical periodicals. One of the most important purchases was made in 1896, when the New York Public Library bought a collection of Italian opera librettos, a few of which date back to tiie end of the seventeenth century. Those of the eighteenth century are more numerous, and the rest run along well into the nineteenth century. The most interesting single group in the collection contains 693 librettos of the operas and ballets performed at the two royal theaters In Naples between 1821 and 1865. The whole libretto collection embraces 134 volumes, containing in all 1,408 librettos, of which 367 are before 1800. An interesting supple- ment to the librettos was purchased at the same time; 20 bound volumes of daily programs giving the title and cast of the opera, ballet, or play to be performed in each of the 10 or more theaters of Naples each day from 1830 to 1859. The Astor and Lenox collections were united in the Lenox building in 1898 and were transferred to the new building at Fifth Avenue and Forty-second Street in 1911. The present music division, thus established, could point to a 36 HUSIO DBPABTMBNTS OF UBBABIBS. library of musical books which contain, besides the Drezel collection, a comple- ment to this collection quite as large again as the original bequest, and which, although by no means complete, or anywhere near complete, not even as nearly complete as ropriations are made, and there are no library funds. Interest is in- creasing, and in 1917 there were 3,G00 actual users of the library. Students and others may avail themselves of the library privilege upon the payment of a small annual fee. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, in New York City, has a remarkable collec- tion of musical instruments, but no collection of music. In the library of the museum there are about 200 volumes relating to instruments. There is no way of determining how many persons make use of the books of reference. The catalogue of keyboard musical Instruments in the Crosby Brown collection, pub- lished in 1903, is a handsome volume of 313 pages, with valuable comment and remarks, and many excellent illustrations. The price of this book is $1. A complete rearrangement and revision of the catalogues of the Crosby Brown col- lection of musical instruments is now in progress, and the completed work will be published In four volumes. Of these Volume II is now published. It la by Miss Frances Morris, assistant curator in the department of decorative arts. Finely Illustrated and profusely annotated, this book of 333 pages (50 cents) is one of the most interesting catalogues imaginable. The New York Institute for the Education of the Blind, 412 Ninth Avenue, New York City, has 300 books on music in ink print and 250 in New York point, with several thousand unbound pieces of music and 80 player-piano rolls. The collection of books is strong in the theory and practice of music, and the music collection in classic teaching pieces. In this school for blind boys and girls the effort is made to train to good taste as well as proficiency in music. No figures are available regarding expenses of the music library, which is considered suf- ficient for the purpose. About 500 persons use the library each year. This in- stitution publishes much of the music in the New York point system used in the United States, and sells publications at cost to any blind people desiring them ; 47 well-selected piano pieces and 3 organ pieces were put into New York point in 1916-17, at prices ranging from 3 to 21 cents each. The Hispanic Society of America, in West One hundred and fifty-sixth Street, New York 01ty» has rather an extensive collection of music, much of which is^ in old manuscripts and is liturgical in character. This has not yet been cata- logued and made available for readers, but several important works on popular songs of Spain and Spanish America are available. . The General Theological Seminary in New York City has a fairly extensive collection of church music and other musical material of an ecclesiastical nature; The VnAversUy of Rochester, at Rochester, has the Sibley Musical Library, established In 1904 by Mr. Hiram W. Sibley, of Rochester* The catalogue and first Bupplement, bringing the list up to 1909, form a neat booklet of 132 pages, and a mimeographed list is dated 1912. Since then few books have been added, but collecting will be resumed when increased library facilities are afforded; 800 books on music and 1,200 bound volumes of music constitute the present collection. Two-hand piano arrangements of orchestral works are pre- ferred to scores, of which latter there are 80. The collection of chamber music works is notably strong, 500; and there are many vocal scores of operas and books on the history of music. The estimated cost of the collection is $7,500. 38 MUSIC DEPABTMENTS OF LIBRARIES. The interest is increasing, with 2,500 annual users of the library. For keep- ing the library up to the demand of the community, $300 annually is regarded as an ideal sum; and the preference would be to buy books on music, as this depajrtaent has fewer recent accessions. The present use of music is 80 per cent, and books on music 20 per cent, of the music-section use. Note is made of the patronage of the collection by musical people of the city, despite an unfavorable location. The John Jermain Library, at Sag Harbor, has a small collection of books on music, but interest seems to center around a newly-purchased vlctrola and collection of records. In a village of 3,000 the monthly circulation of rec- ords exceeds 400. Last winter the library engaged six lectures, the expense being met by the endowment fund. At the Public Library, Syracuse, is a collection of 601 books on music and 1,031 bound volumes of music, with 20 orchestral scores. Vocal scores of operas, songs, and piano music are the preponderating features. The interest is increasing, and the library expects to add to the collection, especially in the line of music. The Public library at Utica has 500 books on music and about 500 bound volumes of music with 20 orchestral scores. New accessions are listed in the newspapers, and a general publicity scheme is followed. The annual expense is $175 for music and $105 for books on music. With slightly increasing inter- est, about 3,400 people used the music section last year. The nucleus of the collection was placed in the library by a local music club. In March, 1917, a special room was assigned to the music section and considerable addition to it is planned. NORTH CAROLINA. Nine North Carolina libraries report music sections. Five of these have not over 50 books on music; two have 100, and two have 200 each. Two libraries have 25 or less bound volumes of music, and one 50. One library has 75 phonograph records. It is encouraging to note that four of these libraries declare the appropriations for music and the resources of the library inadequate to the situation, and three report increasing interest. In no case is the annual outlay for music over $30, or for books on music over $25. NORTH DAKOTA. Two of the seven libraries in this State reporting music sections rQ;x>rt in- creasing interest ; three do not mention the subject. There are two collections' of 50 books on music and two of 75. One library has 100 phonograph records. In general the subject of music does not seem to interest the libraries of the State. At the UniverHiy of North Dakota the combined libraries of the university and of the director of music. Grand Forks, include 500 books on music; 100 bound volumes of music ; and 5,000 unbound pieces ; also 50 pianola rolls, and 300 records. There are 80 orchestral and 5 chamber-music scores. So far about $2,500 has been spent on the collections, in which there is increasing Inter- est, and which is used throughout the State by an interlibrary loan system. HTJSIG DSPABTMENT8 OF LIBBABIES. 39 OHIO. Number of libraries reporting— Items reported. m 1-25 26^i0 60-76 10O>15O 200-250 400-560 60&-700 000- 1,100 1,500- 2,000 2,600 and over. Books an xdiuic Bound vohunes of mntric 17 4 8 6 8 3 8 1 1 4 1 1 2 1 i' 1 1 1 Beperate pieces 1 1 3 PlATflr-Dlano rolls . . . 2 1 PhonQgraph reoords. Boores 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 works.. . .......... 1 The average of nrasic sections in Ohio libraries is encouraging. The general coHections seem to be of ftiir proportions, though nDnno roU^ - . - 1 PhonocniDh records . 1 1 OtehMtnl scores ^. r- 1 2 1 '1 Cbunber music wwks .......... n Chieflf miniature scores. * 1,200. 42 MUSK^ DEPARTMENTS OF LIBRARIES. The music sections of the 61 libraries in Pennsylvania reporting such depart- ments may hardly be classed as remarkable in any one respect Several large collections distinguish the list, and some items therein are worthy of special comment, but the summary of the State has comparatively no outstanding feature. Music-section expenses and appropriations are apparently seldom classified separately, and those mentioned seldom call for comment. The Public Library at Bloomsburg, with 60 books on music and 65 bound v<»lumes of music, uses newspaper notices for publicity, personal work with people at the shelves, and has special cooperation with one of the local music clubs and the school supervisors. The interest is increasing slowly, and would probably grow faster with a more adequate collection of music. The Bvcknell Library of Crozer Theological Seminary, at Chester, has 225 books on music and 200 bound volumes of music, all in the line of church music. The American Sunday School Union, at 1816 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, has a special collection of historical works on sacred and Sunday-school music and hymn books, some of them reputed to be quite rare. These are collated in special cases. They are not in a circulating library, but are for consultation only, free to teachers and students as far as is consistent with the proper pres- ervation of the works. The Drexel Institute Library, of Philadelphia, includes the Jarvis memorial collection, presented to it by the widow of the late Charles H. Jarvis. The library has about 200 books on music and 2,000 bound volumes of music. There are 400 orchestral and 1,200 chamber-music scores. A condition of the Jarvis gift was that the music be used for reference only, and since this restriction has been in effect the use of the music section has somewhat decreased. The Free Library of Philadelphia has 1,240 books on music, 142 bound volumes of magazines, and about 2,500 bound volumes of music. There are 160 orches- tral scores, but usually piano arrangements of orchestral works are bought in preference to the scores. The strong points of the collection are the books on music, vocal scores of operas and oratorios, and piano arrangements. Thus far $5,500 has been spent on the collection, and there is an annual expense from an endowment fund of $300 for music and books on music. The interest is increasing. No count is kept of actual users. The circulation (luring 1910 was 8,469 volumes, 75 per cent of which was music and 25 per cent books on music. The library does not consider the collection adequate to the situation, and would add both books and music. lectures and lecture recitals are given under library auspices. Karly Pennsylvania music, both manuscript and printed, is found in the library of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania nt Philadelphia. It has all accrued by gift. The Library Co. of Philadelphia makes this report: This library has really a very fine collection of music and books relating to music, particularly church music, having inherited the collection of the late Dr. Albert G. Emerick. Poverty has so far prevented a proper arrangement and cataloguing of this collection. It is hoped that at some time in the future the library will be able to revise their musical collection and put it in such shape as to show what it consists of and how it can be best used. The Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh has 7,000 books on music and 1,400 bound volumes of music, with 175 orchestral scores and 400 chamber music scores, both of the latter class chiefly in miniature form. The library is a general collection, strong in no especial field. All the usual means of publicity are used and, in addi- tion, personal letters are sent to musicians upon occasion. No separate record is MUSIC DEPARTMENTS OF LIBRARIES. 43 kept of book expenses, but tlie scores represent an oatlay of $1,200. Patrons sho\^ an increasing interest in the music section, and $500 annually could well be spent on music and books. No lectures or recitals are given directly under library auspices, but in the same building Mr. Charles Heinroth, the municipally sup- ported city organist, gives biweekly organ recitals. The Carnegie Free Library of Allegheny y North Side, Pittsburgh, has 2,000 books on music and 1,750 bound volumes of music. Vocal and piano music are the predominating features of the music collection, which has been largely acfiulred by gift. About 3,000 people use the collection annually, but the interest is stationary. An ideal sum for yearly purchases would be $250, and music would be lN)ught in preference to books. In the music hall of this library build- ing, free organ recitals are given -weekly by the north-side city organist, Mr. Caspar 1*. Koch. The library of the Western Theological Seminary, Pittsburgh, has acquired the collection made by the late James Warrington, of Philadelphia. It includes 1.300 books on music, about 3,500 bound volumes, jind 400 unbound pieces. Church and folk music are almost the sole features of this library. Owing to the recent acquisition of this collection, it has not yet come into general use. The Public Library at Pottsville has but a small collection of books on music and of music, but reports a demand for more material and a prospect of greater activity In a musical way. A recent request for more books on harmony and counterpoint came from a member of the mo!inteeen able ti^ spend on music ** empliatically do not " meet the demands of the community, especially in the way of music which the library would gladly have for tlie development of taste. It is the hope of this library to greatly extend its musical activities when funds will permit. TEXAS. The summary of reports from 14 music sections in Texas libraries is quite encouraging. Four libraries have 25 books on music, one 50, five 100, one 200, one 300, one 335, and one 450. Two have 25 -bound volumes of music, one 75, one 100, one 125, and one 165. Only one reports unbound sheet music, about 100 pieces, and one has 50 phonograph records. Six report increasing interest in music and eight are noncommittal. Four believe the present resources of the music sections inadequate. The Dallas Public Library has about 300 books on music and hopes soon to add both rolls and sheet music. In addition to newspaper notices of accessions, special attention is given to music-study clubs. The interest is increasing, and in 1916-17 music was responsible for a large share of the 32,006 books circulated from the class of fine arts. The Rosenberg Library at Oalvestan has occasional lectures on music by paid speakers. Its collection of 335 books on music and 165 bound volumes of music is intended for general use, and no detailed figures of expense or circulation are available. Music was the special subject of the bulletin for January, 1912, which contains some helpful notes for the inauguration of such collections for general readers. The Carnegie Library at San Antwiio has 450 books on music and about 100 bound volumes of music, with 70 orchestral scores. The interest is increasing, but the library *s music collection does not meet the demands of the community. The music section circulation makes up about 4 per cent of nonfictlon. UTAH. The situation in this State does not indicate particular interest or enthusiasm, Judging from the reports of four libraries with music sections. They have 25, 125, 350, and 426 books on music. One has 500 unbound pieces of music, 10 orchestra] scores, and 70 numbers of chamber music. No comment is made as to whether interest is stationary or changing, and no financial statistics of any kind are given. VERMONT. Reports have been received from 11 libraries with music sections. Five of these have not over 25 books on music, one 30, one 50, one 106, and one 135. Four have not over 50 bound volumes of music, one 70, one 107, and one 257. One library (a State normal school) has 2,100 unbound pieces of music and 72 phonograph records — the only report of rolls or records in the State. Six libraries report increasing interest in music; one stationary. Four think their mrusic collections and the funds appropriated inadequate to the needs of the community. Four would add to the present supply of music, three to books on music, and one would buy more phonograph records if funds would permit. 46 MUSIC DEPARTMENTS OF LIBRABIES. VIRGINIA. In some States few libraries seem able to give any particulars of the music section or its activities, nnd this condition seems to be characteristic of Virginia libraries. Six have reported, but altogether very- few questions are answered. Three libraries have 25 or fewer books on music, one 150, one 300, and one 500. One library has 125 bound volumes of music and 776 unbound pieces. One reports increasing interest and one stationary. No figures are returned in answer to the questions on finance, except that one library would like a music section allowance of $50 annually. WASHINGTON. Pacific Coast States usually report affair share of attention to music depart- ments, and Washington is no exertion. Twelve libraries specify music sec- tions, with the following numbers of books on music: 25, 40, 55 (two), 80, 215, 229, 350, 600, and 971. Three libraries have bound volumes of music — 120, 189, and 1,909, while one has 860 unbound pieces of music One has 58 orchestral scores, another 81, while one library reports 500 chamber-music works. One spends $150 to $300 annually on the music-section purchases. Four believe their collections inadequate for the conununity. Three believe interest In music increasing ; the others make no comment. The general work of the Washington State Traveling Library, at OlympUt, has until recently been hampered by lack of funds. Last year a rather liberal appropriation was made by the legislature, ami It is expected that the music s(H;tion will be considerably augmented at an early date. Now there are only 215 volumes classified in the music list. These are loaned to clubs, schools, teachers, and individuals. The superintendent, herself a musician of consider- able experience, selects the material and gives personal assistance to Its choice in answer to requests. The Public Library at Seattle has 971 books on music, 1,909 bound volumes of music, and 860 separate pieces, with 81 miniature orchestral scores and 500 chamber music works. The books are strong in history and biography, while piano and vocal music are well represented in the music class. In addition to the usual means for publicity, this library has a bulletin board for notices of musical affairs, posters calling attention to special collections, and a shelf for new music. The collection has cost about $4,000, exclusive of binding. There is an annual appropriation of $150 from the library funds, but from $150 to $300 is Hi)ent on music and an undetermined sum for books on music. The library would like to spend $1,000 a year once and $600 subsequently buying music and books on music, but not adding rolls or records till needs in these lines were met. The interest is increasing, though the number of users of the music section is not kept. The circulation figure alone for 1917 was 10,823. Of this, 40 per cent was books on music and 60 per cent music. Mention Is made of the use of this collection by the professional musicians of the city, WEST VIRGINIA. This is another State where librarians are disposed to be noncommittal re- garding the music sections. Four libraries report some collection — one each of 25, 60, 75, and 300 books on music. One has 25 bound volumes of music and another 145, while one has between 600 and 700 separate pieces of music. One has 50, another 200 phonograph records. With this Infonnatlon the reports are practically at an end. MUSIC DEPARTMENTS OF LIBB ARIES. 47 WISCONSIN. Examination of the summary of 39 libraries reporting music sections indi- cates that Wisconsin is fairly well provided with small collections, but lacks any of notable size. Six libraries report increasing interest in music, four stationary, and one decreasing on account of war effects. Four librarians con- sider their collection sufficient for the musical interest of the community, and four do not; seven believe the present outlay (which, as reported, is always small) sufficient, while six would welcome larger music funds. Thirteen libraries use special means of publicity for the music section. The Kellogg Public Library, at Oreen Bay, has over 200 books on music and 50 bound volumes of music. Lack of funds has prevented further purchases in this line, but the present material is much used by teachers, students, and others. Both newspaper and bulletin publicity is used for the music section. The book selection and study club department of the Wisconsin Library Com- mission, at Madison, has about 200 books on music and 10 bound volumes of music. This material is sent out to clubs studying music according to a definite outline, often furnished by the library; er in answer to definite re- quests for information. WYOMING. The single report from this State is that the State Library at Cheyenne has 30 books on music, all acquired by purchase, and included with the general collection. APPENDIX. MUSIC IN OUR LIBRARIES. (Excerpts from an article by O. G. Souneck. Reprinted, by permission, from The Art World.) Poets and other generous souls have extolled the charms of music until the emotional superiority of music over other arts has become a dogma too vener- able for doubt. Possibly the emotional appeal of music is more intense than that of other arts, but the account is squared by several obstructions in the path of that appeal. Chief among these (with all the inherent consequences) is the inordinately complex and costly apparatus required for the performance of musical works in the larger forms, such as symphonies, oratorios, operas. The composer faces a second disadvantage in the necessity of recording his thoughts with the help of symbols which can reach the sense appealed to, the ear, wily by way of another sense, the eye. Furthermore, comparatively few music lovers possess the imagination or the training to transform such visual impressions into the corresponding aural impressions. The accomplishment of " reading the score " of a modern opera, for Instance, is an accomplishment Indeed, and of truly deterring difficulty. Yet on this very accomplishment of those Interested in him every composer sooner or later depends for his inter- course with contemporaries or posterity whenever the performer, the interme- diary between composer and public, chooses not to perform a composer's works. A minimum of reflection will show how, under the circumstances, without the hospitality of libraries composers are in danger of being shut off from posterity. But there his musical thoughts lie practically buried alive, en- capsuled in books of mute hieroglyphics. It is the best the world can offer him until that time when we shall have not merely musical libraries but " museums " of music, where in sundry feasible ways the public appeal of works of musical art will be made to endure, in effect similar to the permanent and ever-direct appeal of paintings, sculptures, etc., in museums of the fine arts. A fantasti(? dream? Not at all. If works of musical art, then, must fall buck gradually on the hospitality of libraries — ^from the very nature of music virtually the hospitality of a mauso- leum— has the best been made of the situation? Hardly. Musical libraries that are reasonably representative of the mighty growth of musical culture in our country, culture that springs from tender but healthy roots 200 years old, arc too few and far between to suggest a different answer. Perhaps the librarian profession still hesitates to recognize in music intellectual elements not less worthy of attention than genealogy or fiction. Perhaps we suffer from a dearth of expert musical librarians whose authority might compel a more hospitable attitude of mind. Perhaps musicians and nmsic lovers in musical communi- ties are still too indifferent or too unaware of their power of concerted action to have the rights of music as a cultural and therewith civic factor more ade- quately respected In libraries. Perhaps American libraries are richer in good will than in funds ; perhaps the cost of music, comparatively much greater than that of literature, works as a handicap. Whatever the reason or reasons, the fact remains that music is deplorably underfed in the great majority of our libraries. Otherwise cities like New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, St. Louis, Cincinnati, San Francisco, Minneapolis and half a dozen others of our musical centers would not lag so far behind Boston in the possession of a municipal musical library of which all citizens may feel proud. They would not be able to emulate certain unique features of the late Mr. Allen A. Brown's munificent g^ft to the city of Boston ; but If they had started in time and had persevered, they would now, as they ought, possess musical collections fairly equal to his in extent and merit. In any ambitious community a library without the complete works of Shakes- peare, Goethe, Dickens, Ibsen, Molit>re, Balzac, Dante, Longfellow, Poe, or wlth- 49 50 APPENDIX. out various serial works published to embrace a comprehensive selection of rep- resentatives and historically important literary masterpieces, such as Johnson's 75- volume edition of English writers, would very properly invite scornful criti- cism. Apply a similar test with reference to the great masters of music. Does your local library contain the more or less complete editions of the works of Palestrlna, Orlando di Lasso, Bach, Hftndel, Purcell, Rameau, Gnltry, Haydn. Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann, Mendelssohn, Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner, Verdi? Does it contain such historical publications as the Denkmdler der Ton- kunst in Austria and Germany, the Pal^ographie musicale, Les Archives de Maitres de VOrgue, Uarte musicale in Itctlia, Les mattres musiciens de la Renaissance francaisey the series of volumes of the Musical Antiquarian Society, or the other similar undertakings designed to rescue from oblivion and to revive, at least for the student, masters of the past? • • ♦ It is not the frequency of use of a book that counts, but the use to which a book is put. A costly and rare book consulted only once in 10 years, but then by a man of far-reaching research or codification of research, has Justified its acquisition Just as much as an inexpensive, commonplace book consulted every day for mere receptive information. If the absence of works of " antiquarian '* or *' modern '* interest be ex- plained on the grounds of expensiveness, the explanation will carry weight. For it is a regrettable fact that chamber music, orchestra music, opera scores, etc., entail an expenditure which acts as a barrier to the comprehensive acqui- sition of meritorious music. And when the prices of foreign works of musical art are Americanized a librarian may well despair of his ability to satisfy the needs of a musical community. When scores of the type mentioned above run in cost anywhere from $4 to $250, the difficulty of assembling a representative collection of music becomes obvious, not to mention a moderate indulgence in bibliographical rarities or in autograph scores. On the other hand, however, by no means all desirable and necessary music is beyond reach of even poor institutions. In every country music publishers have sought to meet the situation by issuing the standard works by standard composers for a mo sity of Rochester, 37-88. Sioux City, Iowa, public library, 20* INDEX. 65 Sioux Falls, S. Dak., public library, 44. Smith College, Mass., library, 26. Sonneck, O. G., music division of the Li- brary of Congress, 12-13; music in our libraries, 49-61. South Bend, Ind., public library, 19. South Carolina, reports from libraries, 44. South Dakota, reports from libraries, 44. Spanish music, 10. Springfield, Mass., city library, 27. " Star-spangled banner," report, 15. State University of Oklahoma, library, 40-41. Stillwater, Minn., public library, 29. Sunday-school music, 42. Syracuse, N. Y., public library, 38. Tennessee, reports from libraries, 44-45. Texas, reports from libraries, 45. Thomas, Theodore, private library in New- berry Library, Chicago, III., 17. Tipton, Ind., public library, 19. Toledo, Ohio, public library, 40. Traveling libraries, Washington, 46. Tufts College, Frederic Louis RItter collec- tion, 27. University of Arkansas, programs of phono- graph records, 7. University of Illinois, library, 18. University of Kansas, library, 21. University of Michigan, library, 28. University of Nevada, music collection, 31. University of North Dakota, music collec- tion, 38. University of Rochester, Sibley musical li- brary. 87-38. University of South Dakota, library, 44. Utah, reports from libraries, 45. Utica, N. Y., public library, 38. Vermont, reports from libraries, 45. Vesper, O. M., collection of church musical. Virginia, reports from libraries, 46. Virginia, Minn., public library, 29-30.^ Washington, reports from libraries, 46. WaHhIngton, D. C, libraries, 12-15. Wellesley College, library, 27. Wells College, library, 34. West Virginia, reports from libraries, 46. Western Theological Seminary, Pittsburgh, Pa., library of church music. 43. Whitlnsvllle, Mass., library, 27-28. William Jewell College, Mo., library, 30-31. Wilmington Institute Free Library, music collection, 11. Winona, Minn., State normal school library, 80. - WInthrop Normal and Industrial College, library, 44. Wisconsin, reports from libraries, 47. Worcester, Mass., public library, 28. Wyoming, reports from libraries, 47. Yale School of Religion, church music li- brary, 11. Yale University, library, 11. O 1 i 4 9 > ■y* Harvard IJnivQfnity,,t DEPARTMEKT OF TOE Iftoic^Jf^s Graduate | • BUREAU OF EDUCATION Oi BliCSim BULLETIN. 1921. No. 34 EcoNOXie Svati». Men and women teachers 8 Age of teachers 9 Beginning age of teachers 11 Teachers bom and reared in the open country 13 Teachers living with parents or relatives 13 Teachers married and single ^ iS Board and lodging 14 Teachers remaining over Saturday and Sunday in the community in which they teach 16 Mcome apart from salary W Money saved 16 Dependents 16 Insurance and beneficial associations 17 Amounts expended for professional literature 17 Chapter III. — The Tbachbr at Work. Number.of pupils 18 Number of daily recitations 19 School libraries 21 Accessibility to other libraries 22 Local institutes 22 Professional literature 23 Supervision by county and assistant county superintendents 24 Schools visited by school boards % 26 Community interest and support 27 Chapter IV. — Academic and Professional Training. Elementary education 29 Secondary education 30 Professional training 33 Academic and professional training during service 35 Chapter V. — Certification. >v Certificates held by teachers in one-teacher schools 38 Certificates held by teachers in schools of two and more than two teachers 42 Certificates held by teachers in borough elementary schools 42 Analysis of the practice of certification by counties 43 in IV CONTENTS. PagOL Certificates over a three-year period 45 Teachers' certificates in relation to experience 46 Certificates and age of teachers 47 Academic preparation and professional training as related to certification 48 Certificates of .teachers from standpoint of supplementary training during service 49 Chapter VI. — Experience and Tenure. Stability of the teaching force 53 Stability of teaching force over a three-year period 55 New teachers without experience and experienced teachers in new positions. . 57 Chapter VII. — Salaries. One-teacher schools in townships 60 Schools of two and more than two teachers in townships 63 Borough elementary schools 64 Length of school term in townships and boroughs 66 Salary in relation to certificates 68 Bases on which school boards raise salaries 71 Salary of men and women teachers 72 Relation of salary to years of experience 73 Age of men and women teachers as related to salary 76 Years of education as related to salary 78 Chapter VIII. — Summary 79 list of references 84 STATUS OF THE RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. Chapter I. INTRODUCTION, PURPOSE AND PLAN OP THE STUDY. The purpose of this study is to learn the true status of the rural teacher in Penn- sylvania. By the rural teacher is meant the teacher in the one-teacher schools in the open country. The study is restricted for the most part to the facts and conditions pertaining to the teachers in the one-teacher schools. In some instances data will also be given regarding the teachers in two-teacher schools, villages, and borougfaB, either for the purpose of helping to verify the conclusions concerning the teachers in the one-teacher schools, or merely to show contrasts and significant similarities. As to scope, this study endeavors to collect all the data possible relating to (1) the personal, social, and economic status of the teacher; (2) conditions under which the work is conducted; (3) academic and professional preparation and training; (4) cer- tification; (5) experience in teaching and tenure; and (6) salary. Each of these aspects will receive detailed consideration in single chapters as designated. The material in general will be treated on the basis of the counties reporting as a composite whole, for the purpose of revealing the situation for the entire State, but in some cases individual counties will be used for more specific interpretations. It is not primarily the purpose to compare the data herein set forth with those of other States; in the first place, because of the very limited amount available in this field , and in the second place, because of the time and expense that would be incurred in trying to obtain such material from other States. Again, it is not the aim in dealing with the problems concerning the rural school teacher to set up a definite program for the State, but rather to present some conclusions and make such suggestions as the facts in this study may safely warrant. ORIGINAL SOURCES AND PROCEDURE FOLLOWED. (1) Upon investigating what material was accessible bearing upon the topic, it was found that, on account of the meager supply, a questionnaire would have to be formu- lated in order to get the information necessary for the study of many of its essential phases. Under the direction of Prof. Harlan Updegraif, with the assistance of the fellow members of the seminar in educational administration at the Univenity of Pennsylvania, a tentative questionnaire was framed and distributed among the teach- ers in several townships in the vicinity of Philadelphia. After a number of trials and modifications of the original questionnaire, caused both by the type of answero given by the teachers, and by the tabulation of these replies in a preliminary study, the questionnaire was finally formulated as here given. 1 2 STATUS OF BURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. TEACHER'S QUESTIONNAIRE. 1. Educational and professional training: (a) Did you attend a one-room rural school? How many years? A rural school of more than one room? How many years? , (h) Did yon attend a vtilage, borongli, or city etemontary sckool of eight grades? How many years? (c) In the blank spaces below state further educational preparation, if any. High school Academy Normal school Spring or sammer normal course. Summer college course Exact length of attendance. Years and months. Years and months. Years and months. Weeks Weeks Did you graduate? Diploma or certificate. 2. Have you had any oi the above academic or professional tnMning since you began teaching? Where? How long? Kind? What would induce you to get a better academic or jMrofessional training for teaching? S. What kind of certificate do you h(Mj 4. Experience in teaching. (Fill out blank spaces below.) Biaal, l-AK>m sehod Bural, iBOFo than i-foam artwol. Tillage Borougb... « «...., CUjr.^ Number efsehool years. . Number of school yvars.. Number of school years. . Number of sohool years. . Number 0/ school years.. Number of plaoes. Number of places. Number of places. Number of places. Number of places. 5. Are you now teaching in a towAship? «... In a village? In a^ one-room rural school? If more than one room, how many rooms? 6. How many pupils in your schoofatMm? How ntany recitations or claeses do you teach in a day? How laaBy grades? What gfades? 7. What year did you begin teaching? - What was your age when you began teaching? Is this your first year? Age? Sex? Were yo« bom and reared in the eountry? Inavilhige? Boroogh? City? 8 r Are you married? How many ehiTdien? If unmarried, is any one dependent on you for financial aid? How many? Wtiat amount per year? Do you live with your parents or re!ati\'es while teaching? Do jtm stay over Sunday in the community in which you teach? 9. What is your salary per month this year? ^. « . How many months? What was your salary per montji last year? Iiow mmiy months? Did you have any otjier income last year besides your teaching salary? If SO, how much per year? 10. What was your salary per month the first year you taught? How often have yoa had jnoiir salary incmsed? OBt what basis does your district raise salaries? - !!• Do you pay board? How much per month? How many months? How much per week? How many wwks? 12. Did you save money on your ssJary last year? Apptoximately how mtich? ^ Do you think you can save money on your salary this year? How much? Do you carry life insurance? Cost per year? Do you belong to a teacher^ protective or beneficod organiiation? . « Cost per year? TBTTRODXTCnOlf. " d I9L Are ydci i^ avbflttibeF ibr a pedagDgieat or prafWioBftT wingwrifte? Name? Cost?.^ ^.* Do you invest aay other money for professional literature? Kind? Cost? *- . . Do you have any reference boolar besideff yonr reffular claeer textbooks? V^iA land? Do ywi havu a sdi^of lihraFyT Appfexi- mate number of books? Have ymt aece» to an^ oth^r libraur|r for boQ^ or mftterialB lot teadiing? Does your distrsct hold local insti- tutes? Are you a member of a reading circle? 14. Do you take part in a parent-teacher's association or any odier kind of com- munity actovity held in your school buildings? Kind? Tb Ibft sdwfemiDe «n4 lor any kind el cominuBity meetuir at night?'. Kind? «... How many hom^s ot patitons do you uink you visited last year? How many viaits, approximately, were made by parents to your sdiool last vear? 15. How mai&y hoiiiire But year did the cotmtv soperintendent supervise ^our teach- ing? How many hiouift^ the amBtaast county supemiteB^fonts? Did your school board vidt your school? » How many? How often? 16. How much consideration does the school board in your district give to the county superintendent's or o19ker supervisM's jiidgment at the time of a teacher's ricution or re^ednon? (Answer— Nome, litlis, or much) Do yon believe you will be retained as a teacher next year in your district^ or in- ouer words do you have a feeling of security in your position? Why? Durinsf the school year ending June, 1^18, the questionnaires were distributed among the teachers in the one-teacher rural schools of 18 counties of the ^tate. These counties were selected at random, with the exception tbat special precaution was taken that the eastern, central, and western parts of the State should be represented. It was also planned to include 3 counties in which State normal schools are located. As there are 66 counties in Pennsylvania under county supervision, excluding Phila- delphia County, and since 13 of these have State normal schools, it will be seen that dkra is a fairly proportionate representation. The size of the counties was also taken into account, so that an equitable distribution of large and small counties should be represented in the study. These q;uest!onnaires were distributed at the teachers' institutes of the di^erent cotmties, and the teachers are represented who voluntarily remained either during the session of the institute or the intermisBion. In the maprity of the counties the writer supervised the distribution of the questionnaires; in cases where it was impos- sible for him to do this, careftilly prepared instructions were sent to the county superintendents to be read to tlie teachers, so that the questionnaires would be handled in each county in as unifbrm a manner as poesible in order to avoid the least variation in procedure. The teachenr were asked to fiH oat the queetionnaireB but were instructed not to insert their names, in order to prerent any hesitancy on tfieir part in giving the fiicts requested; likewise the county superintendents were assured that their counties wotild not be referred to by name. Th^e precautions were taken to make the study as* accurate and scientific aa possible. From the 18 counties there were 1,450 replies received, of which 1,I1(>, or 76.5 "per cent, were given by women teachers, and 340, or 23.5 per cent, by men — an average of 80 replies for each county represented. The number of teachers from the di%*ft?4^ countiss wha replied averaged 62 per cent of the teachers enrolled in one-teacher schools in each county respectively. Ahikoagh aHHnetsacheramcaieh of tbe 18 eonrntfeft did not b^^ to the qusstion- flaire,«tho» i^safficictiit efidejiee to ostaMirih tte belief ^tnt thoK who responded conrtifaite'a very' hir sasnfiiing' of the tcadtev ol evdi? ceoaty repRseiited. 0£ the tewchoni eoastitiatii^ tils stady^ 46 pOT cent hold pravlsioiial certifieates,. 24.7 per eent prolaaiional^ Jt2 per cent pernMnent, \% per cent Bonnal schoel cestaficatee or diplomas, and approximately 0.3- per cent college psovisittiai or permanent certifi- cates. Tha smadter percenti^ of teachers holdzng provlaiuiial ceriificates and the 4 STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYL.VANU. larger percentage of teachers holding permanent certificates and normal school certifi^ cates and diplomas, as compared with the per cent for the State as a whole (Chapter VXI)/ would alone seem to justify this assumption. Consequently, any unfavontble criticism of rural schools of Pennsylvania can not be gainsaid on the ground that an inferior sampling of the teaching group had been made. The superintendents in some of the counties examined the answered questionnaires and stated that in view of their knowledge of the teachers they believed the replies to be accurate and representative of the teaching force of their respective counties. The con^plete and illuminating way in which the questions were answered, especially those pertaining to the social and economic status of the teacher, also bears out the judgment of the county superintendents. It is the belief of the writer that the interest manifested by the teachers, after being assured that the main purpose of the questionnaire was to get the facts which might eventually be used for improving the status of the rural school teacher, is evidence that their replies are accurate and reliable. The replies of the teachers were completely tabulated on 18 record sheets — one for each county represented — outlined so as to set forth clearly the information under such headings as academic and professional preparation, teaching experience, salaries, economic conditions, etc. Each teacher's questionnaire was given a number to C(micide with the number on the county record sheet in order to check up or trace an individual teacher's, record. These county record sheets made possible the tabu- lation not only of the total record for each county, but also of the combined record sheet for all the cases, making readily accessible each item covered by the data for the composite group. It will be observed throughout the study that there is considerable variation between the total number of teachers replying to the questionnaire and those answ^- ing individual items. Percentages are usually made on the basis of the number of teachers answering the particular question, rather than upon the whole number of teachers reporting. (2) Besides the use of the questionnaire above referred to, it was necessary to obtain further original data directly from the county superintendents. They were asked to send a complete directory of the teachers under their supervision for the school years 1918-19 and 1919-20, designating those who were teachers in one-teacher and two-teacher schools in the townships. They also indicated after each teacher's name (1) the kind of certificate held, (2) whether a new teacher without experience, or (3) an experienced teacher transferred to another school, and (4) the teacher's salary. Data regarding these phases of the status of approximately 5,100 teachers were submitted by the superintendents of 30 counties through their official directories. The number of counties and teachers covered by this material will be referred to specifically throughout the discussion. (3) A questionnaire was sent to each principal of the 13 State normal schools to give and corroborate certain statistics pertaining directly to the training and certifi- cating of rural teachers. Specific reference will be made to this material in certain parts of the context. SECONDARY SOURCES. Among the secondary sources furnishing data, the State reports issued by the8Ut)er- intendent of public instruction should be mentioned, particularly the one for 1918. Since the data in the State reports, for the different counties and for the entire State, deal with all the teachers under county supervision as a composite whole, the informar tion was found quite limited, in so far as it was directly applicable to the problem at hand — ^the teacher in the one-teacher rural school. ^ ^ Rep. Sup. of Pab. Ijistnictian, Pezmsylvania, 1918. INTRODUCTION. 5 The report on rural schools by a committee of the Pennsylvania State Educational AflMdation, issued in 1914, contributed to the formulation of parts of this study. ' Suggestions were obtained from Coffman's ''The Social Composition of the Teaching Force," particularly in reference to the social and economic status of the teacher.' The legal basis for this study is found largely in the Pennsylvania School Code. * In the case of all other sources and references used, due and proper recognition will be given as each one occurs in the various chapters. The statistical procedure used in this study is based largely on Thomdike's *' Mental and Social Measurements^ and Rugg's '- Statistical Methods Applied to Education,' in which the terms and processes used are clearly defined. THE BACKGROUND. The 10,038 teachers in the one-teacher schools of Pennsylvania constitute approxi- mately one-fourth of the entire number of teachers in the State and one-half of the teachers under county supervision. The number of teachers in one-teacher rural schools is laiger than the total number of teachers of all classes in each of 23- different States of the United States and is approximately equivalent to the total number of teachers in the States of Arkansas, Mississippi, and West Virginia. ^ With the excep- tion of Iowa, with approximately 11,000,' and Illinois, with 10,105 * one-teaeher schools, Pennsylvania ranks highest among all the States in the number of teachers in one-teacher schools. The next States in rank are New -Yojk, with 8,500 oner teacher schools; '® Minnesota, with 8,174; " and Wisconsin, with 7,000. ^^ These one-teacher schools are distributed for each of the 66 counties of the State (Philadelphia excluded) in the accompanying Table 1. It will be seen that 10,038) or 42.2 per cent, of the entire number of teachers under county supervision^— namely, 23,807 — are teaching in one-teacher schools, and that approximately 2,394, or 11.3 per cent, are teaching in two-teacher schools. ** The range of the number of teachers in the one-teacher sdiools of the different counties extends from 22 to 361 and in per cent from 8 to 96 of the total number of teachers in each county. The median county has 51 per cent of the teachers in one-teacher schools, indicating that one-half, or 33 of the counties, have from 51 to 96 per cent of their teachers in one-teacher schools. It will be noted that counties 23 and 2, which contain large cities, have only 8 and 10 per cent of their teachers in one-teacher schools. On the other hand, counties 29 and 47 have orver 90 per cent of their teachers in these schools. Both of these counties are very spcunsely populated, having a teacher in a one-teacher school for every 126 and 159 inhabitants. • Rep. of Rural Educ, committee of the Pa. Edae. Assoc., Hurisburg, Dec., 1914, Part IV, pp. S7-47. t Coffman, L. D.^The Social Composition of the Teaching Population, Teachers College, Columbia University. * School Laws and Appendix for Pennsylvania, 1919. • Thomdlke, E. L.— Mental and Social Measurements, Teachers College, Columbia University. (Rngg, H. O.— Statistical Methods Applied to Education, Houston MiiBin Co. TRep. U. S. Commis, of Eduo., 1917, vol. 2, p. 76. *Rep. Sapt. Pub. Instroetlon, P. E. McClenahan. * Rep. Supt. Pub. Instruction, F. O. Blair. !• Engelhardt, "The Teaching Profession in the State of New Yock'^ (unpublished). Will appear in the Ajuraal Report for 191&-19 of the Assistant Commissioner of Education, New York State. >i Rep. Commissioner of Education, James M. McConnell. u Rep« Supt. Pub. Instruction, C. P. Cary. u Rep. Supt. Pub. Instruction for Pa., 1918, pp. 008-610. Becht, J. George, "A Study of School Con- solidation and Transportation. ' ' Sixth An. Schoolmen's Week Proc., p . 197. 6 STATUS OF RURAL TBACHBB IIT PENNSYLVANIA. Tablb 1:. — ffamirro/dtmentmvttKittn widn-oMni ta oTu-teaeher school*, two-teadier kAooU, vwrt tiu, i'yroMghs — Population ai\d area in »qu(tr« miles. 1 P 33 m 4,!^ '■m s. W f ,Ki Ml V »s s 3. n-Pi.. IM8 p.UO. 18 p. « < Smutl's Leglslalive Jidof county supe. — * Oeographlail C A Stiid)-a(Sch(KdCi>TuoUdsUoaaiidTraiupottalloii, Sixth An. li k ol reimsylvanlu, p. 389. I'Dpulstlon Includes only sobooldli IirrRODTTCTION. 7 Table 1. — Nvmber of eleo^enUxry teachers under courUu supervision — Nurriber and per cent in one^4eacher schools, two-teacher schools, more than two-teacher schools in villages and boroughs— Population and area in square miles — Continued. County. WMhingtan. Wyoming. TotAl. Range Median ooonty 25 percentile 75 percentUe Quartile deviation. 761 2KI 9a6 130 571 as^wr i S 5-3 M z 1 280 ISO 296 67 300 10^ om 22-^1 150 88 W 54.5 4 I 100 14 144 12 9D %»t 2-144 26 14 60 18 381 82 526 51 171 11^875 0-1,423 111 51 186 67.5 at 1S^ g-g 5 P4 37 61 31 5^ 61 4,222 »-06 51 40 m 10.5 6 Be 13 6 15 9 11.3 2-28 0 7 13 3 IS 36 50 35 54 39 ao 46.5 0-87 30 28 50 11 OS « 115,287 29,230 206,517 15,509 9V655 4,iMy64S OGA Z ^ Poo p,cB at o55 P^ 411 194 097 231 126^,536 295 231 411 90 OS 9 "a 862 799 1,039 397 903 44,898 I- O M 3.1 4.9 3.5 5.9 2.5 :Jass 2.4-17.8 4.2 3.4 &1 1.4 The table shows that the number and per cent of teachers in one-teacher schools in the counties of the State vary greatly on basis of the 1910 census rural population, Tftngit^g in number of inhabitants per teacher from 126 in the most sparsely populated county i» 4,536 in the county with the largest population. The population per teach«r is the median coimty is 295. Since the size of the counties in P^msylvania ranges from 130 to 1,200 square miles, it is not surprising that the range in square miles for each teacher in a one-teacher school extends firom 2.4 to 17.8, with the median county showing 4.2 square miles. la the case oi the 10 cotmtieB with aft area oi 1,000 square nales or more the per eest of one-teacher schools ranges from 31 to S6, FVnr exaavple, in counties 20 and 52 the county superintendents have 311 out of 373, or 83 per cent, and 108 out of 126, or 86 peg cent, el the teachers und^ their supervision in one-teacher schools. On the other hand, counties 17 and 64 of this group of large counties have 241 out of 560 and 296 out of 966 teachers in one-teacher schools, percentages of 43 and 31, respectively. Seme facts cowxming the teacher situation in Pennsylvania, 1. NUMBSB or TXACHEBS IK 19IS-19. Ill state (axdudlngPMladelpUa, and PittAurgh) XTiider Gonntysupeniilendents'iBpervisioa In villages and boroughi la «ne- teacher schqolf. I* two-teaober schools B. mJHBEB OF KEW TEACHEBS. TTndarcottiiity superlntsndent«'mi|>ervlsioik, 1919-29 1. . ., Pndar eottaty wtp— Intendentt^ Mmervidoa, 19U^19 (without experience) Ittone-teaolwrscnoolay]9t»-20 (without expsrience) In ona-tatclicr aciwola (^aq^arleBeed in a new peeitien) C. IfOBaCAL-SCROOL GRADUATES. I«1918 IA1919 In 1920 : Katintated number of normal graduates entering rural schools in 1919 < 35,641 2^807 11,375 10,038 2,394 5,500 4,044 3,200 3,900 1^,964 1,750 1,<80 248 Percent^ 199 4SI 49 11 17 32 39 15 1 Study in Teacher Shortage, Department of PnbMe InsKtuottan, Penneyftsnia, 191^99 (umibll^Mi). I Numoer estimated, based on the replies to a questionnaire to the normal-school principals. Chapter II. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STATUS. Before going into the study of the rural teachers from the point of view of their educational preparation, certification, experience, and salary, we shall consider the more personal factors relating to their social and economic life. It is hoped that by following this procedure we may have a better conception of rural teachers as such, and thus be better able to interpret the conditions and situations later revealed in the major part of this study. MEN AND WOMEN TEACHERS. In the accompanying Table 2 the data obtained from the directories issued by the county superintendents for the present 3 ear, 1919-20, show that 76 per cent of the. 2,743 teachers in the one-teacher elementary schools are women and 24 per cent are men. Comparing these percentages with the State averages for 1918 — ^f or women 82.4 and for men 17.6 — ^it will be seen that in these 20 counties represented the per cent of men teachers surpasses the State average for men in 1918 by 6.4.^ It is inter- esting to note further that the percentage of men teachers in these counties is also approximately 4 per cent higher than that for the United States as a whole in 1917, which was 19.7 per cent.* Table 2. — DistHbution by number and per cent of men and women teachers in one-teacher schools of to counties in 1919-20. No. of county. Men. • Women. Total. Percent men*. Percent women. 1 41 30 20 17 30 3 13 18 53 47 40 19 18 43 6 41 71 8 2 137 178 95 160 152 174 21 27 196 94 102 46 50 49 80 94 75 172 35 102 184 219 125 180 160 204 24 40 214 147 149 86 60 67 128 100 116 243 43 104 321 19 24 11 10 15 13 33 8 36 32 47 28 37 85 6 85 29 19 2 43 81 2 76 3 89 4 90 5 85 6 87 7 67 8 92 9 64 10 68 11 53 12 72 13 73 14 65 15 94 16 65 17 71 18 81 19 98 20 57 Total 657 2,086 2,743 24 76 « Range 2-137 13 20 41 14 21-196 49 94 160 66 2-47 11 24 33 11 53-98 First Quartito 65 VMllflTI - , . . 73 Third auartile 87 Quarti fe deviation 10.5 1 Rep. Supt. Pub. Instruction for Pa., 1918, p. 633. > Bep. U. 8. Coounis. of Educ, 1916-1918, Vol. Ill, p. 16. 8 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STATUS. 9 While there is very little available material from other States concerning the per cent of men and women teachers in the rural schools grouped apart from all the teach- , ers in the public schools, nevertheless what we do have shows that Pennsylvania has a higher percentage than certain other States. For example, a survey of Nebraska in 1915 showed the percentage of men teachers in the rural schools to be 10.3 and of women 89.7.' In 1918, among the white teachers in county schools in Vinpnia, 9 per cent were men and 91 per cent, women.'* A study of the per cent of men and women teachers in the separate counties as shown in the table reveals a wide variation. On the one hand, counties 11 and 20 show 47 and 43 per cent men teachers, respectively, comprising nearly one-half of the teachers in the one-teacher schools. On the other hand, in county 19 only 2 per cent of its 104 teachers are men, and in counties 8 and 15 the men teachers are 8 and 6 per cent, respectively. From these facts it will be seen that the range of the men teachers extends from 2 to 47 per cent, while for the women the range is high, extending from 53 to 98 per cent. From the data at hand it is difficult to account for the large variation in the num- ber and per cent of men and women teachers in the different counties. It happens, however, that the counties having the highest per cent of men teachers are usually classified as agricultural counties. Through the questionnaire it was learned that in the counties having a high proportion oif men teachers the majority were married, lived on farms, and frequently reported substantial incomes in addition to their salaries received for teacJiing. Owing to such living conditions, teachers remain in the teaching service, thus bringing about greater stability- in the teaching force. AGE OF TEACHERS. Of the 1,446 cases represented in Table 3, 1,109 are women and 337 men, with ages ranging from 18 to 65 years. The median age of the women teachers is 22, and of the men, 26.7, showing a difference on an average of over 4 years. Although the range in the age of men teachers is practically the same as that of the women, yet there is greater variation and a wider distribution about the midpoint in the case of the men teachers than in that of the women, as evidenced by the quartile deviation of 10 in the first case and 3.5 in the second. The upper 25 per cent of the men and women teachers are beyond 41 and 27 years of age, respectively, indicating more conclusively the higher age of men teachers. The median age for the combined group of rural teachers in one-teacher schools ia 22.8 years, which is approximately the same as the median s^e for the rural teachers in Nebraska,^ and South Dakota in 1918,* 21.01 years and 22.14 years, resx>ectively. The average age for the rural teacher in one-teacher schools in New York State in 1919 was 27 years.^ s The Rural Teacher of Nebraska, U. S. Bui., 1910, No. 20, p. 21. * Va. Pub. Sch. Survey, 1919, p. 135. B The Rural Teacher of Nebraska, U.S. Bu. of Ednc, Bui., 1019, No. 20, p. 23. • The Educational System of South Dakota, U. S. Bu. of Educ, BuL, 1918, No. 31, p. 211. ' Bngelhardt, F. The Teaching Profession in the State of New York. 10 STATUS OF IttJHAL VEJtOSJBSi US PENBTSTLVANIA. I I O s ? « I 5S 5-5 4S 1- "^ I CO H m < Eh 1 8 1 00 rtet»-oc««c»oioeQMe<»ncocOfHe4i^ •>h !• « 1 ^ to F^ •-« »-l '-* 1^ :" « !»-« f»H > i^ PC««9e>»rH ^•m-4 s «o C4 ^ ^ es 00 -^t eg « rHfOM ■« 1 »-♦ '>e*c*oi^^ .©«»-» "^ s ^ ^'^^SISS'^'^'^^''^^^^^^^**'^^'^''^^^'^'^ I 1-i » « CO onto coo C4 M >^ i^ Ol -^ ;s M 00 r«- ^ 1^ ^ i-« •© -H Ic4co^<>i'H pMi-»»i^ I,.* •i« ^1 1-i iOC4CO>t<»^»t tOtM*!* I i-i •-rtfO ««4 CO i-^oftet ^ « 1^ eo I ^ C««4»hM |i pH^^B*** •!-•>-« ^« » • CI >ce «c« n 'C9 |e« S CO l-« I«o !iF^»-ie9 1»^ tt-i |rt«-iwc»«'« •< » I t i»^ 1 ••*li-« ■ •i4 » CO 0**14^^^,1* i*H • '»-4 01 M l»^ •eotoe* • ^0*4 i M 69 00 0^ lO lO Ct^O MWi-i 5? I^ i"* i»* • i».f *^ • '^^ ■ •*« »-f • 1.4 • a» ^ O -4 CO CD t^CO «D0 Ok 'H loooao ^ S (■•r^ooo Total distri- bution (IS conn- tie*). ^^ ^^ ^*f ^^ 1 00 CO CO t^ 1 s 1-1 Sc ^'sis ^'^ ^ s's ^s^ n g §^ ^ ^ ii ^ i ^ i s ^ s igi "3 1 c ci •-< 1 1 » SDdM. A2K& wamcamic status* II BEGINNING AGE OF TEACHERS. Table 4 shows that the median age at which the 1,421 teacheis repfesented began teaching is 19.2, and that the range extends from 15 to 32 years. The 123 teachers who reported their teaching as beginning earfier than at the age ol IS must have begun their work before the enactment of the PennsylvaDia School Code of 1911. Twenty- six teachers reported as having entered the teaching profession at 25 or more years of age. The middle 50 per cent of this gtonp ranges from 18.4 ta 20.5 years^ meaning that 710 teachers, or half the group, began teaching between these yeais. OF RTIBAL 8S »8»SSS|5 iir- Sill SOCIAL A2n> ECONOMIC STATUS. IS TEACHERS BORN AND REARED IN THE OPEN COUNTRY. It has been pointed out repeatedly in the recent literature on rural education that one of the main factors in the success of rural teaching is to know rural life and be in sympathy with its problems. A circumstance which should help teachers secure an insight into and a sympathetic understanding of rural life and customs, especially in the case of those not trained professionally for rural teaching, is their being bom and reared in the open country. In the light of this, it was thought advisable to tabulate the data as found in Table 5. Table 6. — Number of teachers in one-teadter schools horn and reared in the open county, villages^ boroughs^ and cities — total distribution and per cent, followed by 8 typical counties. Open country. Vfflage. Borough. aty. Total. Totftl d«t^^bl1tl"n 1^ oniiTlt'^^ 1,003 74 92 7 164 12 09 7 1.358 Pw cent 100 Distribution in typical counties: 36 64 122 30 88 53 78 100 5 4 12 2 8 3 1 S 3 9 25 3 14 20 10 0 43 2 3 8 4 27 8 13 4 80 3 107 4 ao 5 137 e 84 7 102 8 113 Among the 1,358 teachers who answered the question as to the place of their birth, 1,003, or 74 per cent, were bom and reared in the open country; 92, or 7 per cent, in villages; and 19 per cent in boroughs and cities. Since it will be shown later that approximately three-fourths of these teachers had no professional training to fit them for teaching in rural schools," it might, therefore, be considered fortunate that such a lazge proportion of the teachers represented in this study were familiar with rural life, and had received at least part of their educational experience in a rural school. Many county superintendents state that they would prefer to have teachers under their supervision who possess a sympathetic understanding of the life and customs of rural people rather than to have those who come from boroughs and cities with better academic preparation but unfamiliar with rural work. TEACHERS LIVING WITH PARENTS OR RELATIVES. In reply to section 8 of the questionnaire, pertaining to the social life of the teacher, it was found that, out of the 1,160 replies, 739, or 64 per cent, reported they were living with their parents or relatives while teaching; but 348 out of the 739, or nearly half the number, were obliged to pay from their meager salaries a certain amount for board and room. TEACHERS MARRIED AND SINGLE. Of the 336 men teachers replying to this part of the questionnaire, 184, or 55 per cent, were married. This probably is a fortunate situation, in that their homes may be made to serve as teacherages and in that it helps to improve the stability of the rural teaching force in many counties of the State. In considering the very small proportion of married women teachers, 60 out of 1,050, or approximately 6 per cent, • See p. 34. 73438°— 22 2 14 STATUS OF &UBAL TEACWER IK PENKSin^VANIA. the questioii might well be nised* especially in these times of gneat scarcity of teachera; whether a special effort should not be made to induce and encourage more married women cilter to ooatinue ia the service or to reenter the prnfesnon of teaching. BOASD AND LODGING. Out of the 1,450 lepliea received, 870, or 00 per cent, reported as paying for boaid and room. Of this number, 747 were women and 123 were men. The yearly and monthly cost of board and room for the teachers reporting these items of expense are shown in Tables 6 and 7. The outstanding feature of this information is the wide variation in the oost, both on the monthly and yearly basia. Fve example, it will be seen in Table 6 that the yearly cost of board and room nmges from less than $50 to more than $200. The median cost per year (generally considered the sdiool year) is $121, while the cost for 61 per cent of the teadtere ranges from $75 to $150. Probably the most significant fact revealed by a study of this table is that 38 per cent of the teachers pay less than $100 per year for board and room. It should be recognized that these data were collected in 1918, and that in the meantime this item of expense has been very greatly increased. Nevertheless, the facts seem to bear out the ofnnion generally held that the cost of board and room for rural teadiers is oonsidecably less than for urban teachers. Table 6. — Yearly cost €f board and rwrnt. Iiess than 180. $60-<74 I764W $160- «12A 912»- S149 $160- $174 fl7fr- $199 $800 or above. Total. TotaldLstribution 18 counties Percent •• .- 16 2 82 10 213 118 14 174 21 84 K) 79 10 7 819 10$ Typical counties: 2,1 ! !im J!I™™n!I! 1 6 3 8 1 4 U 7 10 0 4 U 19 13 11 21 18 1 2 t4 1 11 ie* 2 6 12 36 7 15 « 4 1 2 5 1$ 1 6 1 1 6 16 1 4 6 is' 27 3$ 3 1 12$ 4 3$ 5 1 1 1 2 97 6 «. 30 7 2 51 6 3t Turning to the individual counties, it will be seen that there is considerable varia- tion in the amount of money expended for board and room. Counties 5 and 8 show a median cost oi $133 and $83, lespectively . This difEeiefioe can probably be somewhat explained by the fact that county 8 is principally an agricultural county, while oonnty 6 contains a number of urban comnnuiitieB. Taslb 7. — Monthiff coat of board and room. $5-$8 $9-111 $12-$14 $15-$17 $18-$20 $21-$23 $24-$26 $27-$2» $$0ar above. ¥oCaL Total distribution 18 oounties 'i 86 11 219 28 194 23 217 25 13 2 53 7 4 14 2 832 riir cent. .^. _.._..... 100 Typical counties: 1 4 14 8 7 14 9 9 6 9 32 24 3 9 23 16 11 9 27 20 9 2 11 6 11 13 43 19 77 7 9 1 e 3 1 1 2 10 6 17 1 J 1 1 1 2 2 2 $2 2 3 2 6 41 8 vn 4 90 5 0$ 6 32 7 1 6 1 54 8 37 SOCUL, AVD EOOKOHIC STATtTS. IS !!%» Medyn moMAy^tfoiAml homd muA ^zom, as4&9wii in TMU 7, is $16; the niige extevfa from $6 to $30 or move per mout^. It will be further observed tkaA 75 per cent of the teachers paid from $12 to $20 per month, and that 14 per cent paid less than $12 per month. TABI.S 8. — Nwmher of iMnrakg/or wfticft Uuchen pecfffar board and room. Months. SortoBs. S 7 « » 10 11 12 Total. Total Astif^tflon W comttles Ptf^iOAt..... 21 2 1« 2 499 M 178 22 ?5 0 15 2 70 9 «17 100 'Vypioal eoanttes: 3 1 2 27 9 4» SO 23 26 28 32 1 1 32 2 14 «7 17 19 1 3 16 26 8 1'* 4 13 13 IS 1 2 2 4S 8 2 2 1 2 1 1 ^,. 137 4 8 1 98 5 2 2 4 m 6 1 1 34 7::::::!.::::::::::;:::;: 36 8 ^ 36 It wiU be seen in TabLe 8 that over 50 per cent of the teachers reported thst tbey ^id ios bttUEd and room lor seven iiu»ths of the year, which is the length of the school tena lor a mafoiity 4d the teacheis ia meal distiicts. Teachexs who paid their liviaag expenses for a period of eight and nine months usually taught in Gouniies in which a large proportion of the school districts have eight and nine months' terms. Eleven per cent of the teachers had to meet these expenaes for a period of 10 months or more, while only 9 per cent were obliged to meet them for the entire calendar year. TI1A£SB]U» UEMAININA &VESL SATUBBAY ASI> SUNDAY IN THE OOM* IfUNITir US WHICH TAST TEACH. In aaost of the Jeceikt Jitecatiue on rnral education, particslar emphasis has beeft placed on the matter of wiiether teachers Hv^e in the community in which they are teaching over the week end. It is maintained that in order to be of the best service in a ^ovticufair school commanity a teacher should participate in and become a part of the social life of that coskmunity. With this idea im saind the iollowing questiaB was lesiBttlated: '^Do you remain ^ver Sunday in the comauinity in which you teach? " ThiS feplies w&ee as leUows: Table 9l — Teachers spending week ends where teaching. Niunber. Per cantL Teachers remaining in community Saturday and Sunday 485 48 Teachers not remaining in community Saturday and Sunday 477 47 Teachers remaining occasionally 45 5 Total number replying 1, 007 100 Im laje first place, it should be noted that only 76 per cent of all the teaehere repay- ing to taie questioimaare rep6r <*t iriMinin*? . 19 1.8 32 3.1 60 5.9 131 12.9 160 15.7 148 14.5 426 41.6 18 1.8 26 2.5 1.019 P«r cent 168 It ia noticeable in the preceding table that the range in grades extends from 2 to 10, with the median falling in the group reporting 7. Inasmuch as the latgest num- ber of schools are found to have S grades, it is evident that the county superintend- ents are carrying out the program suggested in recent years by the State department of public instruction of grading and grouping the pupils on an eight-grade basis, as has generally been practiced in the urban schools.^ Althou^ a laige proportion of the teachers, 72 per cent, have the pupils grouped in 6, 7, or 8 grades, yet it is quite significant that 23 per cent report 5 or less grades, and 4 per cent, 9 and 10 grades. The latter condition is usually found in schools in which the advanced pupils either repeat the grammar-schodi subjects or pursue the study of one or more high-school subjects whidh may possibly be added to the regular elementary school work. In the case of teachers reporting 5 grades, it is found that there are a number of one-teacher rural schools with laige pupil enrollment who hold to the traditional scheme of grading their schools in 5 divisions. A diversity of grading similar to that which prevails in the group as a whole is apparent in the different counties. Several of the counties show a fairly laige pro* portiMi of schools with laige pupil enrollment having 4 or 5 grades, while in two others 7 and 8 g^ade schools largely predominate, thus showing on the part of super- visory officers the pursuance of different policies of grading and grouping pupils. NUMBER OP DAILY BECITATION.S. Hie number of daily recitations in the program of the teachers in one-teacher schools for the 1,350 teachers reporting this information is shown in Table 14. The number of class recitations is found to range all the way from 9 to 50 per day. How- ever, since only two teachers reported as having the almost incredible number of 50 recitations, it is probably safer to say that the upper range for the group is approxi- mately 45 recitations per day. The median number is 25.6, falling within the largest group reporting 24 to 26 classes. The middle 50 per cent extends from 22 to 30 reci- tations. Probably the most significant fact revealed by these data is that 25 per ciBt of the teacfaera reported as having 30 or move daw redtationa per day, and 7 per cent of these 35 or more per day. 1 CoaiM ot Study Cor Eltuauxtaij Schools of Pa., 1913, State Depl. Pub. Instr. ii^och et ai., p. 9. 20 STATUS OF RUBAL TEACHER IK PENNSYLVANIA. Table 14. — Number of recitations per day m one-tiacher schools in 18 eounties^ followed by 8 typical counties. • Number of recitations. Total, 18 coun- ties. Typical oountiefl p 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9-11 4 37 38 182 209 396 146 246 60 22 8 2 . 1 1 3 5 31 31 60 18 16 2 1 2 3 7 6 9 4 10 10 39 28 7 4 2 2 1 3 5 9 48 14 18 1 1 1 i* 7 13 17 2 3 i* 1 12-14 2 1&-17 3 1^20 4* 14 2 20 2 2 4 13 13 7 1 11 19 7 2 3 4 21-23 7 24-28 21 27-29 19 30-34 43 85-39 6 40-44 7 45-49 50 Total 1,350 25.6 43 30 40 27 42 23 168 25 129 31 108 26 44 24 113 Median number of recitations. 30 Since the length of the school day is approximately 5} hours, or 330 minutes, exclusive of intermissions, it can be seen that teachers having 30 or more recitations per day would average approximately 10 minutes per recitation. These facts cer- tainly give some proof of the very strenuous work that teachers in one-teacher rural schools are obliged to do, especially in a school of 25 or more pupils. In the 8 typical counties represented in the table the medians range from 23 in county 3 to 31 recitations per day in county 5. Although the teachers in three of these counties report 30 or more recitations, we are glad to point out that the data show that three others of the group have an average of 25 or fewer recitations. Since approximately 20 per cent of the entire group, as we have already pointed out, have 20 or fewer recitations per day, there seems to be direct evidence, at least in some of the counties, of a tendency to lighten the teacher's work and to improve her efficiency by following the suggestions of the State department of education in 1918 in the Course of Study for the Elementary Schools.' In the suggested daily program contained in the State course, the allotted time provides for 23 recitations per day, including the opening exercises. It is doubtful, however, whether in the average daily program for a rural school, with a fairly laige enrollment of pupils divided into 7 and 8 grades, the required work can be covered with less than 25 recitations per day. In comparison with the very limited data that we have from studies relative to the topic of class recitations in rural schools of other States, it would appear that Penn- sylvania ranks very well. In South Dakota the number of daily recitations in open country schools was found to be 26.65.' In the State of Colorado the number of recitations for all the schools in the counties, including villages, averaged 22. How- ever, in the one-teacher schools the number of recitations in many cases is reported as high as 37.^ belahon between number of pupils and number of daily recitations. In representing the relation between the number of daily recitations and the num- ber of pupils enrolled, it will be seen in Table 15 that in the group of 141 teachere reporting an enrollment of 18 to 20 pupils the range in daily class recitations extends from 12 to 45, with a median of 26. In the case of the group of 198, with an enroU- s Coorae study for Ele. Scbs. of Pa. State Dept. Pub. Instr. Ko6h et al., p. 8. I Educational System of S. Dak. U. S. Bu. of Eduo. Bui., 1918, No. 31, p. 114. i Administration and Support of the Colorado School System. U. 8. Bu. of Bduc. Bui., 1917, No. 5, p. 76. THE TEACHEB AT "WORK. 2t ment of 30 to 34 pupils, there is an equally wide range in class recitations per dayi Where the enrollment is over 35 there seems to be a tendency toward an increase in the number of recitations. . Table 15. — Number of pupils in one-teacher schools in relation to number of daHy recitations. Number of papUs. Number of recitations. V Total num« 9-11 12-14 15-17 l»-20 21-23 3 4 14 14 32 19 25 21 12 26 19 14 2 1 ...... 24-26 2 6 14 32 40 53 27 53 22 67 30 32 7 5 1 2 27-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50 berof pupils. 3-5 1 2 1 8 2 4 3 4 2 3 ...... 1 1 3 3 5 1 2 2 4 1 8 3 8 ...... 1 11 8 11 13 16 27 18 12 24 15 11 4 7 2 1 \ 8 6-8 1 2 15 11 15 9 20 12 15 15 12 7 5 3 2 27 9-11 6 8 10 24 25 27 83 35 25 33 11 8 1 48 12-14 1 1 2 6 8 7 13 7 6 4 3 1 1 95 15-17 1 111 18-20 1 2 2 1 3 4 4 1 2 1 141 21-23 127 24-26 157 27-29 102 80-34 2 1 2 ...... ...... 198 3*h39 120 40-44 117 45-49 37 50-54 1 1 33 55-59 8 00 and over 6 Total number 1 redtatious. . 4 32 38 181 207 393 144 246 59 • 22 7 2 1,335 r-.20 P. E.-±.018. Looking at this table with the number of recitations primarily in mind, it will be seen that the teachers reporting class recitations in the class intervals from 18 to 20 and from 24 to 26 per day show practically similar distributions in the number of pupils enrolled, with the median number of pupils approximately 25 in each dis- tribution. Beyond 27 daily recitations there is an evident increase in the number of pupils enrolled. The correlation, while positive, ib not high, namely r=.20 P . E . » db .018 (Pearson's Product-Moment Method) . This means that schools having the largest number of pupils enrolled do not necessarily have the greatest number of class recitations per day. In discussing the number of pupils, the grouping into grades, and the number of daily recitations, it has been the purpose primarily not in any way to make an exhaustive study of each of these phases of the school, but rather to throw light, if possible, on the tremendously large and difficult task that many of the teachers in one-teacher rural schools are called upon daily to perform. An average enrollment of 26 pupils with 7 or 8 grades and a daily program of 26 or more recitations were typical of the average working conditions, not to mention the group of nearly 50 per cent of the teachers whose pupil enrollment, number of grades, and daily recitations Car surpassed these averages. In discussing further the working conditions of the teacher, we shall take into account the information given in the questionnaire concerning the agencies which should help to make their work more efficient during service. Therefore, we shall tabulate- the answers given to parts 13, 14, and 15 of the questionnaire as found in chapter 1.' SCHOOL LIBRABIES. In answer to the question whether there was a school library, only 1,044, or 72 per cent, of the teachers replied. In Table 16 it will be seen that 31 per cent answered affirmatively, 41 per cent negatively, and 28 per cent did not reply. ^ See p. 3. 22 STATUS OF SURAL TEACHES IIX PBITNSYLVANIA. Table 16. — P^ cent <^ ieackerM Teporting ^ekool Ubrsriet, total per cent foUmoti bjf iO typical counties. Total, IS 1 conn- ties. Typical counties. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Per cflBt reporting libraries Per eemt not reporting libraries. . Per cent iu»t replyiair. 31 41 28 30 3S 32 25 65 iO 26 60 14 37 50 13 63 25 12 64 1 44 29 27 28 56 1ft 12 71 17 66 15 19 Great differences seem to exist among the separate counties. Por example, in counties 5 and 10, school libraries were reported by 63 and 66 per cent of the teachers, respectively. Oa the other hand, counties 9 and 2 indicate the opposite extreme, in tbat only 12 and 25 per cent thus reported. The reason for these differences miist He i^t largely to conjecture, sijice no definite inforsftatioii was given to indicate concltt- dvely the exfibct causes. The teachers were asked to state the approximate number of books filed in thm libraries. "Hiese data are tabulated in the following table: Table 17. — Number cf books in one-teacher sefiool libraries. Nnmber of books. 1 Total. < 10 20 30 40 50 75 100 150 200 300 400 4 1 NnmlNr of teadierg re- portine. ^ 1 20 64 15 31 76 IS 30 7 43 10 23 14 3 5 1 423 P«r«ent MS ■ It will be noticed here that the range in number of books extendfl from 10 to 400. Nearly 50 per cent of the 423 teachers who gave this infcnmation reported libraries with less than 40 books, and 21 per cent reported libraries with 100 or more volumes. Al- though only 423, or 29 per cent of the whole number of teachers upon which thifl study is based, reported as ha\dng a definite number of books in their school librariea, yet these comparatively few teachers should be highly commend^ for the efforts exerted by them, freq^ejitly with the aid of pupils and ofttimes at a personal sacrifice. AOCEaSIBILlTY TO OTTHEE LIBRAItlES. In reply to that part of question 13 of the questionnaire asking whether teaehecs had access to ajay other libraries for obtaining books and materials lor teaching, it ifl interesting to note that 924, or 64 per cent, of the teachers replied, of whom 398, or 43 per cent, reported in the ajQirmative. In view of the slight variation among IJm different counties, this condition seems to have been quite prevalent thiougjbiout th« counties r^resented in this study. LOCAL INSTITUTES. Since it is generally known that all teachers in PennsylTUua are obitged to a;tteiid either county or district teachers' institutes for five days, we shall not discitfiBin detail this agency as a means for the training of teachem. However, since most of the county superintendents in Pennsylvania encourage, or actively participate in the organization oi many local or district institutes throughout their counties, the question was asked of the teachere, how far th e\' availed themselves of this opportunity . There were 824 teachers who replied to this question, of whom 691, or 72 per cent, reported that they had attended such educational meetings. From this large proportion of THE TEACHER AT WOKK. 2S affirmative replm it is evident that local institutee ptay a part in helping to develop teachers ia the mraft ^stricts. In order to learn -what opportimitieB the teachers in rural schools have for personal growth and development, they were asked whether they -were members of a reading circle. Thirty-one per cent of the 1 , 017 teachers replying said that they were members of such an organization. This low percentage may probably be expected because of the physical difficulties that teachers in rural communities must necessarily experience in attending such meetings. PBOFESSIONAL LITERATURE. To ascertain further the opportunities of which teachers in the one-teacher rural schools individually availed themselves, they were requested to state the kind of professional literature for which tbey subscribed, such as educational magazines and reference booJoa. It is shown in the previous chapter that teachers expended a fairly large pescenta^ of tiieir salaries for material of tliis kind. Of the entire numb^ of teacheis comprisiDg this study, 1,114, or 77 per cent, gave this informaticm, of idiont 1,015, or 9 1 per ceat, reported tha4; they flubscribed lor ediLcatk>iial magaziiieB . ABi4)ng tbe masihet thus reportiog, 879 gave the names of the cnagaKines as described in the icdlowiskg table: Table 18. — Educatioiud magazines subscribed for by teachers in one-teacher rural schools Kind of magazines. Normal Instmetor Primary Plans Primary Education PaJar EdMoatioa Educationai Journal Child Life. Pennsylvania School Journal Progressive Teacher Teadier's Work IN COMBINATIONS. Normallnstnietor and Prtmary Plans Normal Instructor and Pathfinder Hormal Jaatnictor, Primary Plans and Pathfinder Kormal Instructor and Primary Education Normal Instructor and Popular Education Primary Education and Popular Education. l^imaiy Flans and Popular Education Normal Instruction, Primary Plans, Popular Education Normal Instruction, School JournaL and Pathfinder Normal Instructor and Educational JournaL Educational Journal and Pathfinder Normal Instructor and The Centur r Normal Instructor and Educational Foundations Normal Instructor and Current Events ^ PrimaTy Education and The Century Miscellaneous Total 879 Number. Per cent. 460 52.3 36 4.1 28 3.1 17 2.0 7 .8 3 .3 3 .3 2 .2 2 .2 156 18.0 62 7.0 17 1.9 13 L5 11 L3 10 L2 9 1.0 6 .7 4 .5 5 .6 3 .8 3 .3 2 .2 1 .05 1 .05 18 2.1 100 From the data at hand we have no evidence as to how lar these selections of educa- tional magazines earned out the suggestions of the list of educational journals as sub- mitted by county superintendents in the different counties, but in talking this matter over with several of the superintendents of counties represented in this study, the writer learned that in many cases the teadiers SoUowed the suggestions of an agent in eelecting magazines either separately or in attractive combinations. Besidee the educational magazines in tlie foregoing list, a small percent]^ of the teacheiB reported as subscribing for the following magazines and periodicals: Review of Reviews, Home Economics, Good Housekeeping, Popular Mechanics, New Centiuy World's Events, Hie American, World's Work, Youth's Companion, Saturday Even- 24 STATUS OF BURAL TEACHEK IN PENNSYLVANIA. ing PoBt, Geographic Magazine, Pathfinder, Current Events, Nature Study, Bird Life, newspapers, etc. None of the above was named more than 10 times, with the exception of the Pathfinder, which was named 48 times. Current Events, 35 times, and Geographic Magazine, 20 times. Relative to reference books, approximately 22 per cent of the teachers gave informa- tion. The following were named most frequently: The Encyclopedia, the Diction- ary, the Standard Dictionary of Facts, Century Book of Facts, Stoddard's Lectures, Book of Knowledge, Boobs on Teaching, Books on Theory, Story Books, Classics, Public School Methods, Supplementary Text Books, etc. SUPERVISION BY COUNTY AND ASSISTANT COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. Inasmuch as it is generally understood that scores of teachers in the rural schools are new and inexperienced in the work and frequently have very limited academic and professional training, it was deemed advisable to determine, to some extent at least, how much time was actually spent by county and assistant county superin- tendents with rural teachers for supervisory purposes. These data are tabulated in Table 19, of which Division A shows that the time spent by county superintendenta in supervision, according to the replies of 1,006 teachers from 18 different counties ranges from a quarter of an hour to eight hours during the school year. The median is found in the group of 404, or 40 per cent of the number, who reported supervision for a period of one hour. It is most significant that 66 per cent of the teachers replied that county superintendents could spend only one hour or less in supervising their teaching work. Table 19. — NuTnJber of hours per school year teachers in one-teacher schools are super- vised — Distribution for 18 counties ^ followed by 8 typical counties. DIVISION A.— COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. Number of hours. Total distri- bution, 18 coun- ties. Typical counties ■ 1 2 3 4 5 ! 6 7 8 ^ 46! 215 ! 4 1 12 31 4 6 2 17 45 4 12 15 2 8 4 2 16 38 13 3 i' 1 ..^ 3" 2 4 1 6 23 ■ ■ 3.. 4 404 71 159 38 39 17 12 6 7 8 , 38 1 4 1 10 1 2 1 35 5 8 S 1 6.. ^ 6 4 6 6 t 7 3 2 s '""'"*""* 8 ---- 2 1 * 1 Total 1,005 1 29 58 15 17 117 45 73 75 DIVISION B.— ASSISTANT COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS. Number of hours. Total distri- bution, 18 coun- ties. Tjrpical counties. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 \ 9 68 175 54 204 78 36 13 5 5 10 3 6 3* 1 6 12 2 10 7 2 1 1 1 . ........................... 2 5 3 26 2 2 1 8 2 3 20 44 16 25 20 3* 1 1 6 - .................>......... 12 li ! 2 2 : :.:.: 10 3 li:::::::: 7 4 2 6 2 1 6 1 7 1 ! 1 8 3 2i:::::::: 2 Total , 655 1 12 60 19 130 44 1 44 THE TEACHER AT WOBE. 25 In observing the 8 typical conntieB in Division A, it is apparmt that the range and median time spent in supervision are practically the same in all the countiee with the exception of counties 3 and 7 — ^the coimties among the group acccffduig to Division B, that do not have supervision by assistant county superintendents. This is due to the fact that by law counties with less than 200 teachers are not entitled to an assistant superintendent.^ But note the contrast — ^in county 3, having 22 one-teacher schools out of the approximate 60 schools supervised,^ the teachers in the one-teacher schools reported supervision ranging from 2 to 8 hours; on the other hand in county 7 in which the number of schools approaches 200, with approximately 126 one-teacher schools,^ very little supervision can necessarily, be given to the rural teachers, as has been shown by the replies from two-thirds of the teachersi who stated that they have received one hour or less of the superintendent's time in supervision. While this latter county superintendent probably gave as much time in supervision to the schools as most of the others representing the group of 8 counties, the extra supervision received by the teachers in the other counties through their assistant superintendents was practically denied his county with 125 one-teacher schools by the rather arbitrary State law. In Table 19, Division B, 655 teachers reported the amount of time spent in super- vision by assistant county superintendents in their schools, respectively. While the range in time is the same as in the case of the county superintendents, the median is found in the group of teachers reporting two hours of supervision during the school year. Since 54 per cent, or over one-half, of the teachers in counties having assistant county superintendents reported supervision of two or more hours during the school year, it is apparent that teachers received, on the basis of the data reported, con- siderably more supervision from assistant county superintendents than from county superintendents. This condition would naturally be expected, inasmuch as the county superintendent is responsible not only for the supervision of every school under his jurisdiction, but also for the administration of his office. It seems remark- able that these school officials could devote as much time to the schools as herein reported, not only because of insufficient professional help, but in many cases because of the lack of sufficient clerical help and proper office facilities. At this point the reader 's attention should be called to Table 1 in Chapter I, in which are set forth certain difficulties relative to supervision in the various counties that county sui>erintendents are obliged to face, such as the large number of one-teacher schools, sparsity of population, and size of county. To study the first of these problems more specifically, in county 41 the superintendent with only one assistant has 321 teachers under his supervision, of whom 197, or 61 per cent, are employed in one- teacher schools ; in county 28 the superintendent with also one assistant superin- tendent has under his charge 307 teachers, with 197, or 64 per cent, in one-teacher schools; while in county 20 there are 373 teachers, with 311, or 83 per cent, one-teacher schools, likewise supervised by the superintendent with the aid of only one assist- ant superintendent. In counties 36 and 66 there are 650 and 571 teachers under the county superintendent's supervision, with 361 and 350 teachers in one-teacher schools, respectively; but the superintendent in the former county has 3 assistants, while in the latter the superintendent has but 2, although the two counties have practically the same number of one-teacher schools. It would seem that in order to provide additional professional supervision for rural teachers, instead of using the arbitrary plan providing for one assistant for 200 to 400 teachers, and one additional assistant for 400 to 600 et cetera,* the number and distri- bution of one-teacher schools should be given careful consideration, to say nothing at • School Laws of Pcmisylvaiila, and appendix, 1919, Art. XI, sec. 1135. y Teacbers' directories issued by county superintendents, 1919-20. 26 STATUS OF XJBJOu TEAQHT^ IIT SBmNSYLVANIA. Idaw time of mdi other Iscton aa the «ae iillte eovntieB, i^Bririty trf fxopialstiiOB, 4Did Btmiber axid siae of school dktnciB. K IB not the Tpurpoae ito ^^eSboorBte on iheBe dsta «Hy furiher er to suggest pomide coDsttuctive nuHuniiaBy but lalfaerto ntiarth 4ike«tiiatkms in the Stftte«B ^heyexietj nMmely, the lack oi ^ofenioiial •sapervsioa amd AMntsztoe giveB to teadieiB in Ite ruzal schooda, toad emphasis np^n -^e need idr inmedtate additiaBAl wkifauioe te cojim^ supeiiiDtendeista, in oider^ make tbe time s^peot^ snperviBiiig^ttial sdtools Btadl omn|iamhte mth that devoted to supervimoniji ^borough and city adiocds. ISwee conditianfl t^erfeatz^ must tend todisoofopnge nuoiy of the teaohara ivitibnot nsy psfr- fidons ecKperience, and unistetdiftefiEly eanae aowes-of them to esiter nrbaiB schoob or leave the jMroieBBiQn altogothar. SCiiOOLe Tl&TED BT 4KSDOtL SDA»I». ■Since the sdi^eol laws of Peansylvaoua j^mvide that ' 'hoards of school diDeetosB AaH osercise geosral «iipe!rvifiion ever the eohedls of their ve8peetive< districts, and shall, except in districts having district superintendents or supervising prindpah, hj abb or jufu-e of their jiumher visit every sehoel -in the distnct at least once ajnonth/' " the question was mkedot the teachers in the nisal sdheols wh^Jier Jkhe school heai^ had visited their schools the inievious year. Of the^oixtinB nvmher of teadbereinclndcd in :&ifi fltady^ 694, or 48 p& cent, s«ipplied thisislezmation. Bixty^nsne ]^ oeast el those r^piyingsay that their schoois were viastad hy the sehool hoardi, and ^nunher is difitrihuted in the lollowiag table: Table 20. — Number and per cent of school directors visiUng one-tteacher ^nural 9ehooU. ^kutibor of diseslort. ■ 1 3 8 4 £ Total. Number of schools represented.... ,._. 141 28 134 27 108 21 58 11 65 15 am Per cent 100 The median numher of direofeors visiting schools is found in the g^ouii who wepar^ed visits by two directors, and in only €5, or Id ^er cent, of the sdieels was it r^oited that the entire hoasd icsnsisting of five meoLbers observed the teacher actually at work. Tajble 21. — Number and per cent of visits made by school directors m the one-teacher schools. Number of visits. 1 294 61 2 3 4 5 0 7 12 2.4 8 8 10 Total Number of schools represented. . . Per cent 88 18.2 33 ft.9 15 3.^ 18 3.7 5 1 8 1.6 2 a4 483 This table shows that the median number of visits made by school directors in one- teacher schools is found in the group reporting one visit. It may be interesting to point out that 294 reporting one visit comprise 61 per cent of the group. The school code, it should be recalled, provides thact ^e boards shall exerctse genezal super- > School Laws of Pennsylvania, and appendix, 1919. Art. IV, sec 406. VHE TEACSEK A.T WOKK. 27 ■vum 4ew tke Behooia, bwt It does not speoi^carTly refer in Ray sense to tlieir floper- viMMi cf lastmdbioii,. Hub ^iprmgs lis te the i4Bnti0n , ^, ^^ 180 M2 503 S8 Little consideration 47 Much consideration ..... 90 Total 725 100 In studying the above table and discounting the fact that only one-half of the teachers from the 18 counties comprising the study furnished this information, it is most significant to learn that 70 per cent of the teachers reported that the school boards gave none or very little consideration to the judgment of coimty superinten- dents in exercising their very important function of electing or reelecting teachers to the schools in their respective districts. When it is recalled that 31 per cent of the teachers reported that the school boards do not visit their schools, one can not help but point out the fact that teachers certainly receive very little intelligent considera- tion from many school boards as far as their professional welfare is concerned. These conditions emphasize all the more strongly the need for a centralized county organiza- tion, especially in its relation to local school boards, if the teachers in the one-teacher schools are to be assiu*ed of the consideration which they so rightly deserve. COMMUNITY INTEREST AND SUPPORT. In closing this discussion of the conditions under which the teachers in the rural communities are obliged to work, it is of interest to see just what support and coopera- tion the teachers in the one-teacher rural schools received from the patrons and resi- dents of the school community. The teachers were asked to give this information in several parts of the questionnaire. In the first place they were asked, ''Do you take part in a parent-teachers' association or any kind of community activity held in your school building?" The following table contains the replies: Table 23. — Teachers reporting parent-teachera^ organizations and other community activities. Teachers reporting parent-teachers' aasodation or other oommimlty activities. Teachers woo do not have such organizations Total. Per cent. 28 72 100 It is quite apparent from the above replies that teachers in the rural communities have very little conmiunity cooperation and support in an organized way as is shown by the small percentage, 28, who reported such an organization. In some cases it may have been impossible to have such a community organization, but we are glad 28 STATUS OF BUBAL TBAGHBB IK PBKNSYLVAKU, to leam that teachers in many rural schools made it a practice to visit the homes in their respective communities and that the parents also frequently visited the schools. In reply to the direct question covering these facts, 515 teachers, or 36 per cent, reported that it was their practice to visit the homes of parents. The average number of homes visited by the group thus reporting is 7. At the same time, 483, or approxi- mately 33 per cent, of the parents showed an interest in the work of the schools by making frequent visits d uring the school year . The average niunber of visits reported by this group is found among those who received eight such visits from parents. In communities having one-teacher schools, interest and cooperation in the work of the public schools on the part of patrons and residents frequently has a very direct bearing upon the kind and condition of the school and especially upon the social and economic life of the teacher who is called upon to serve in such a community. This support and interest on the part of the citizens is undoubtedly as vital to the teacher's personal welfare as the support of county and local school officials is to her profi aional welfare. Chapter IV. ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL TRAINING. BecauBe of the important part which the teacher's academic and prof eaaional traiiiing p]ayB in the conduct of school, it is most essential that in a study of the rural teacher this phase should receive careful analysis. The facts in this discussion are based entirely upon the replies in the questionnaires furnished by the teachers themselves. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. Table 24 shows for the year 1918 the elementary education of a group of 1,440 teachers in the one-teacher rural schools in 18 counties of the State. The range in years of the 1,192 teachers, or 80 per cent of the total group, receiving their early education in townships extends frcmi 6 to 12 years, and of the 248, or 20 per cent, in boroughs, from 5 to 11 years. The median length of elementary education in both cases is found in the group reporting as having an elementary education of 8 years, which is the equiva- lent of 68.2 months on the basis of 7.6 months, the average length of school term for townships, and 70.8 months on the basis of 8.6 months, the average length of term for boroughs.^ Table 24. — EUmentary education in years of teachers in one-Uacher schools in townships and boroughs— Total distriouXion and per cent for 18 counties. DIVISION A— IN TOWNSHIP SCHOOLS. Years. Totaldlatribution 18 coun- ties Percent 20 . 2 ! I 114 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 164 14 423 36 228 19 147 12 66 5 30 3 Total. 1,102 100 DIVISION B— IN BOROUGH SCHOOLS. Years. 5 6 7 8 • I 10 11 12 Total. Total distribution 18 coun- ties 4 2 28 11 46 19 119 48 p 26 10, 23 9 2 1 248 Per cent. 100 There is much similarity between Division A and Division B, as shown by the ranges and the medians. Probably the greatest difference between the two is found in their respective distributions, the former showing 39 per cent attending elementary schools fOT a period longer than 8 years, the latter only 20 per cent for practically the same length of time. It is probable that, among those teachers who report elementary > See Table 46, p. 66. 73438**— 22^- 29 30 STATUS OF EURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. education for a period of 11 or 12 years, high-school training may be included, inas- much as they do not answer the part of the questionnaire pertaining to secondary education. This is more likely to be true in the case of the teachers receiving their elementary training in townships rather than in boroughs, since only 36 per cent of the former completed this education within the period of 8 years, as compared with 48 per cent of the latter. These facts can be explained in part in that rural schools in townships frequently have classes that extend beyond the eighth grade of the elementary school. It ia not at all uncommon to find nine grades and sometimes more in one-teacher rural schools. The highest, or ^' A/' class in many of these schools frequently spends thiee or mtn-e years repeating the more advanced elementary-school subject, with the addition, IRobably, of algebra or Latin or some other high-scho Eleventh An. Rept. High School Inspectors, State Dept. of Educ. of Pa., July, 1918, p. 14. n MCSumsKBc ANi> Tnamamis^Mtu TRAisriarck 81 25t'— i9«6o«idliiry Mkboatien ef Uatke^s- in* (mt-ieadur sd^ooif Total eUHnhtriimifot IS iwmiit^ foXL&H^ by €k8trA%tum in 8 tj^pical cq/mUiM — Contiaued. DIVISION B— DISTRIBUTION IN PER CENT. Teachers repOTtiBi. Without secondlbry ediiea' tion. Witb secondary edMca^ Secondary education in per cents. LoBStiHUI one year. Ono year. Two years. Three years. Pour years. Percent. 100 30 61 •r 4 11 17 23 Distribution in typi- cal counties: 1 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 40 64 42 94 40 50 22 30 m 36 68 A 60 50 78 61 10 3 1« 1 » 1 2 3 8 8 5 6 U 5 4 8 18 5 9 18 35 17 12 31 8 13 23 10 18 2 9 3 37 4 31 5 7 6 23 7 38 8 11 Among the group of 39 per cent oonstitiiting the teachers ^o reported no secondary education, it must be pointed out, as will be discussed more in detail in the next chap- ter,' that they held all types of c^tificates, and that 60 per cent of those holding per- manent certillcates roported that t^y had Jto secondary education. At the same tune the answers showed that teachers just entering the profession with provisional certificates had the highest percentage of secondary school training. Another coaaSdenition shoidd be taken into account when interpreting these data, namely, that a^smftll percentage of the teachers who reported no secondary education attended elementary schools in rural communities with 9 and 10 grades, of the type described eas^es ia^ this cht^ter. TheB> again., a^ AoaU proportion of those reporting only elementary educational preparation attended an academy or local county nor- mal school for a period of six weeks before securing a teacher's certificate. In tracing the education of each teacher in a number of typical counties, it was found that this group constilatedfrom K) to 15 pef cent out of the 39 per cent reporting no secondary education. This means, after making all possible deductions on the basis of the answers given by the teachers themselves, that on a very conservative estimate the number of teachers not haniag had any secoatiafy education is approximaitely 25 per cent. • This conclusion is further corroborated by a recent study in teacher shortage made by tfa« bureau of certification and training of teachers of the 8tate department of public instruction, in which it is set forth that 25 per cent of the teachers holding provisional and professional certificates have had only elementary education, and that 2 per cent out of these 25 per cent had not even completed this elementary training/ This information was submitted, to the State department by the county superintendents, and covers the teaching force for the current year 1919-20. Two facts, however, should be kept in mind in analyzing the data issued by the State department: First, that teachers holding permanent certificates are not included, which, on the basis of this study, would undoubtedly raise the percentage of .teaches not having had secondary education;^ and second, that the data com- prise all teachers mder county supervision rather than the teachers in one-teacher schools, exclusively, tending therefore to lower the percentage of teachers without secondary education, since a much larger proportion of the teachers in one-teacher rural schools hold provisional and professional certificates than in the two-teacher rural,, vilkge, and borough schools.^ These facts would all the more strongly warrant the conclusion that, as before stated, 25 per cent of the teachers without secondary education in one-teacher schools *'9bc p. 4S. ^StotyteTaaBUBf • See' p. 4©'. * See pp. 39, 40. 8lMMi0B^S«pCr PlMx laiiWWitfla of Pfcy 19i»-30 (iilipntHllilWll)> 32 STATUS OF EUBAl, TEACHER IN PEKNBYLVANIA. is surely not too high an estimate, and the exact per cent would likely be between the 25 per cent and the 39 per cent recorded by the teachers themselves in the questionnaires. On the basis of the data presented, applying these percentages to the 10,000 teachers in one-teacher rural schools of the entire State, it would mean that approximately— 3, 900 began teaching without secondary education; of these, 2,500 from the ele- mentary schools without any additional training, 1,400 with ninth and tenth grade advanced elementary training. 700 with secondary training of less than one year. 400 with secondary training of one year. 1, 100 with secondary training of two years. 1, 700 with secondary training of three years. 2, 200 completed a four years secondary course. 10,000, total. 28 1 Z^AWiW 9 il 40 PROf.C KRMI 60 y/////Am\\\{\\ n 13 15 19 40 i^$^:5^eS5lllll NORMUC 55 10 5 a 6 AS I lllllllll — 7 12 16 10 TOTAL C 39 61 II II 17 22 NO 5ECE0. TWOYRSOI <^^^ ONE YR 0RLE5S THREE YRi^ fOUR YR5. DuoRAU 1.— Poroentage of teachers in oae-teacber rural schools, by certificates, on the basis of their secondary education. The secondary education of the teachers represented in the 8 typical counties in Table 25, Division B, following the distribution for the entire group of 18 counties, shows considerable variation. In the first place the range in percentage of teachers having secondary education extends from 36 to 78. Among those who have finished a four-year course in a high school or an academy, the difference in per cent between the lowest county and the highest one is 31, county 5 indicating 7 per cent and county 7 indicating 38 per cent. While there is evidently considerable variation in the counties in the number of teachers spending less than four years in high school, the counties showing the large proportion of teachers with two and three years of high- school education possess a goodly number of two and three year hi^h schools, respec- tively, throughout their counties.' Counties 5 and 8 stand out prominently because of the large nimiber of teachers who reported attending secondary schools less than one year. This may be due in part to the fe.ct that private academies are located in these counties offering both to teachers in service and to prospective teachers a spring or siunmer normal course for a period of six weeks. While it is not our purpose at this point to discuss fully these academies which conduct normal school courses, yet the influence of these schools in f Eleventh An. Kept. Pa. State H. Sch. Inspectors, p. 14. ACADEMIC AND PBOFESSIONAL TRAIKING. 33 the ooimtiee where they are located is quite marked, as will be shown in the latter part of this discussion dealing with the training of teachers in service. The counties that have this type of school show a higher percentage of teachers with academic or professional training than those counties which do not possess schools offering similar opportunities either for prospective teachers or for teachers in service. In comparison with other States from which we have data, it appears that Pennsyl- vania on the basis of this study does not rank very well in the number of teachers with secondary education in one-teacher rural schools. It should be remembered that the x>ercentage8 for Pennsylvania are strictly for one-teacher schools and that in some of the other States cited all rural schools, including village schools of two and more than two teachers, were considered. Table 26. — Education of teachers in one-teacher rural schools. Elementary education only . . . One year of high school or less. Two years of nigh school Three years of hieh school Four years of hign school AlaP bama.i Colo- rado. 2 Nebras- ka.! Pennsyl- vania. South Dakota.* Vir- ginia.» Iff.O 7 4 9 16 15 36 •25 18 18 17 22 0.6 10.1 3.3 17.2 16 9.4 18.0 10.2 38.0 '35 »58 Ml.O 1 Educational Study of Alabama, U. S. Bu. of Educ, Bui., 1919, No. 41 , p. 349. I Administration and Support of the Colorado Sobool System, U. S. Bu. of Eduo. Bui. 1917, No. 5, p. 74. « The Rural Teacher of Nebraska. U. S. Bu. of Educ. Bui. 1919, No. 20, p. 31. « Educational System of 6. Dakota, U. S. Ba. of Educ. Bui., 1918, No. 31, p 213. » Virginia Public iJchool Survey, p. 334. « See explanatioix p. 31. T Per cents do not total 100. PROFESSIONAL TRAINING. To consider the professional training of this group of teachers in the one-teacher rural schools means, under the present certificate system in Pennsylvania, practically the exclusive consideration of those teachers who have attended a State normal school. This information is tabulated in Table 27, which shows that, out of 1,445 teachers, 1,105, or 76 per cent, report having had no State normal school training. This indicates that the remaining 340, or 24 per cent, attended a normal school for a period ranging from 6 weeks to 4 years in length, of which number 264, or 18 per cent completed the normal school course. It will be seen that this percentage of normal school graduates is higher than the average, which is 14 per cent for the entire State of Pennsylvania, based on the reports of 28 counties in 1919, as will be explained in the next chapter.* This helps to substantiate the view that a good proportion of the better educated and professionally trained teachers in each of the counties repre- sented in this study answered the questionnaires. ft Table 27. — Distribution of teachers on the basis of normal school education in prepara- tion/or teaching — Total distribution for 18 counties, followed by 8 typical counties. Teach- ers re- port- ing. With- out normal school educa- Uon. With normal school educa- tion. Normal school education. Nor- mal school grad- uates. Per cent with normal school educa- tion. Per cent Less than lyr. 1 yr. 2 yrs. 3 yrs. 4 yrs. normal school grad- uates. Total distribution 18 counties. 1,446 100 1,105 76 340 24 40 3 42 3 142 10 91 6 25 2 264 18 Percent Dlstributioa of Typi- cal Counties: 1 ^ 2 47 99 62 40 110 53 107 119 34 43 43 28 68 87 83 99 13 60 19 12 41 16 24 22 9 6 - 4 **"2* 3 6 11 2 6 2 5 16 1 3 2 2 21 8 6 18 4 10 5 3 65 13 5 37 12 13 9 28 61 31 30 37 30 22 18 4 20 d 1 4 6 3 4 7 ...... 1 8 3 56 3 21 4 13 5 34 6 23 7 12 8 7 » Bee p. 40. 34 STATUS OF KUKAIi TBACSB» Ilf PEIOFSYLVANIA. The Uogest gvoup of teachen, sftakriy 1^ p%v cent, of tkose raportiag' Bteto* oonBid •chool education had attended- for s pmod oif tsro yean»« indicatiag that theee eitimr had gnduated from a four-year hig^- aebool and spent two yearn m a normal aciiori^ or had attended a State normal school for a p&nod isi two yeam under what was Icnowtt as the two-year course which existed for a penod of yeaie prior to the year l^M.^ During diat tinia it was possible for a student to* complete the elementary sehooi and graduate from a normad sehooi in two jrears without any prelimniary edocadon; From 1904 to 1914, normal schools in Pemuiylvaiiia had what was known as a thse&- year course, which admitted students eiti&er from an elementary school or from at high school, meaning that the 6 per cent grotrp in the table attending a normal school for three years in most cases had entered* tiie sdiool without any high^echoot eduiea^ tion. The 25 teachers reporting that they had attended a normal school for four years are usually persons who had gone to the normal school directly from the ele- mentary grades, thereby making it serve both as the secondary school and the pro- fessional training school. In the individual counties following the general distribution, the range in per cent of teachers having attended a normal school extends from 18 to 61, while tor those who completed the normal courae, th per cents range from 4 to 56. Counties 2 and 5, having the largest number of teachere who attended and graduated from a normal school are 2 of the 13 counties of the State in which State normal schools are located. Undoubtedly the most significant fact as brought out in these data is that at least 76 per cent of the teachers in the one-teacher schools entered upon their work without professional training in State normal schoohr by the examination route, made pos- sible by the Pennsylvania certificate system, which will be discussed more at length in the next chapter. We have very little comparative data from other States per- taining exclusively to the rural school teacher, yet from the meager information we do have' it appears that Pennsylvania ranks very low. For example, in South Da- kota, according to the recent school survey of that State, it is estimated that 45.8 per cent of the teachers attended professional schools and that 54.2 per cent entered' flie rural schools without professional training. *° In Alabama it is also estimated tJiat 63.6 per cent of the teachers teaching in rural and \'illage schools had no pro- fessional preparation." '^Tiile the rural schools as defined in both of these siunneys may not be as closely confined to the one- teacher school as in this study, yet the com- parison is most significant in that Pennsylvania, on the banlB of the number of cases represented in this discussion, ranks lower than a t^'pical western and a t^'pical' southern State. In New York State only 8 per cent of the teachers in one-teacher schools are grad- uates of State normal schools, a percentage considerably lower than that for Penn- sylvania.'^ However, *' approximately 60 per cent of the teachers in these schools have had one year of professional training in training classes either added to four years of high school, or added to an incomplete high-school course." ** Since the State of Pennsylvania has no teacher training institutions specially intended to pre- pare elementary teachers other than the 13 State normal schools, it would seem at least on the basis of comparison with our neighboring State New York, with its 11 State normal schools, that these facts grv*e us additional evidence in favor of the immediate establishment of larger and more adequate teacher training facilities in Pezmsylvania. 9 Pennsylvania State Nor. Sch. catalogues. Proc. State Normal School Principals. M Edue. System of S. Dak., U. 9. Bo. of Edufc. Bui., 1918. No. 31, p. 231. u Educ. Study of Alabama, U. 3. Bu. of Edtlc. Bal., 1919, No. 41, p. 349. u See p. 40. u EngaUiardt. *• The Teaching Profeaiion in the State of New Yotk. '' ACJommc AMD TwomsaeiosAiM XRAiNisia, »5 on the bssit ti/ freiimmary seeojtdarp edwatiem. N^%;;^^j^?^^:^ J^^^CC^^CCCC^C^SJ^^ :^^^^ ^<^^^oo^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^if^^^i^^^^^^^^^^^^^^/^>y//y//y/yx/X/y/y^^^^ kvsx\\\\\\v>5 ISWWWW '^^^;^. ^^s^^^^ ^^J^S^^^CCCC^C^ :%^;^>^ 05^JJ»»K\>^ <<^^^^ ESSSSSS^ \^///>:y rovwsxw V//////////////// »^OK>»iVcccc^ >^^<>;^ ^^^»^^^^^^^%:^>^ ^^^C^^^^JCKC^ ^ .^ •»^c^^^^c<^ >i^;^^^i^^%;^c»^»^^^^ v///////. ^^!^!ii!99^!^9^^ //////A JCC^C^CC^C^J^^^ / S5C«»^^^N^'^^%r^ JCCC^CC^^^VCCCO^ ^^^ kVvVVv^VV^\V\V\.V c^^^^^^^^J>^> cc^^^^^N»^^c^c^/;>;^ ^f^!^^i^!^^y///////A S.//////A r J^c^^^c;^^^^^Rep. state Supt. Pub. Instruction, 1918, pp. 610-11. 4lSt STATUS OF RURAL> ITBAjCHEB Hff PENNSYLVANIA. yifiijDn. 1% wouldt se«m tiiat ii^ » mca» eqiasbM^- dMribution* ot tcmed teacdieva wmer established throughout the counties, greater impetiu' would be givnflequently the remaining 1,800 cerl^catee must be held by appreximately 13 p^ cent of the 13,800 teachere in- schools other than one-teacher school under county supervision. This second eomparisoa of the percentage holding pro\i8ional certificates between the two groups of teachers emphasiaes just ae stiongly as in the case of the normal school graduates the very unfortunate inequitable distribution of teachers holding different types of certificates. CERTIFICATES HELD BT TEACUER8 IN SCHOOLS OF TWO AND MORE T^AN TWO TEACHERS. It may be seen at a gl^ce, in Division B of Tables 32 and 33, &om the number and kinds of certificates, that a larger proportion of the teachers in this class of schools are better trained than those in the one-teacher schools. For example, 293 out of the 914 teachers hold provisional certificates, which is only 32 per cent of the whole numl>er, as compaxed with 52 per cent in the one-teacher schools. On the other hand, 25 per cent hold normalnKhool' certificates and diplomas as compared with 14 per cent in the one-teacher group. The number of teachers holding professional and permanent certificates is also proportionately higher than in the one-teacher schools, although the difference is not so marked. The main fact in all of this is that the percentage of teachers holding higher certificates, thus indicating better preparation and training, is appreciably higher among the teachers in schools of two and more than two teachers than in the case of the teachers in the one^teacher schools in the same counties. CERTIFICATES HELD BY TEACHERS IN BOROUGH ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. Since the writer had the information gi\ing the kind of certificate* held liy the teachers in the borough elementarj' schools under supervision of the county superin- tendents in the same eountiefi, it was found interesting to see how the certification of these teachers compaam with that in the township schools previously discussed. The number of teachers holding professional and permanent certificates is practically the same as in the case of the one-teacher schools and of the schoolB of two and more than two teachers in townships, namely, 21 per cent professional and 15 per cent permanent. It was also found, as might be expected, that the x>er cent of normal school graduates teaching in boroughs ie dSper cent, or 44 per cent higher than that in the one-teacher schools, while conversely the per cent of provisional certificate teachers in the boroughs is only 6 per cent, or 46 per cent lower than that in the one- teacher schools* These facts emphasize all the more strongly the unequal distribution of kinds of certificates among county teachers, implying unequal academic and professional preparation in the different types of schools under county super\'ision. They help to substantiate the evidence found elsewhere in this study that teachers with the higiier grades of certificates either migrate voluntarily to the village schools of two and more than two teachers and the borough schools, or are frequently transferred arbi« trarily by school boards to the first type of schools just named in the same townships. These vacancies thus caused in the one-teacher schools are, as tlie facts indicate, OISTIFICAiFION. 4a uraaUy fiUed by teachers heriding piovieional certificates^ The fact is already eatab- Ikfaied that ihe UEagraded oae-teacher raxal achool is UBuaUy taught by one with ia« adeqiwto academie prepamtM» and practically no profeadonal tratidxig or teaching experience^ la Chapiter II were presented the facts relatiog to the lima ting CQnditioBs affectr iag the ivork oi the rural teachers ia one-teacher schoofe. Clearly they were of the xooet disadvantHgiBeus type. Naturally teachers avoid these sehoc^s if possible, and those ia charge ^^pare&tly are noi willisg to pay more to secure teachers for these move di£&ciilt peoitioBS^ HeBee ei0 nxral schoole are beiiig filled with the least com<- petent among the entire teechiog force. ANAX.TSIS OF TH£ FKACTICE OF CUBTIFICATION BY COUNTIES. Turning now to the individaal counties, it will be observed in Table 32, Division A, that the variation is most pronounced both among the kinds of certificates held by 9 2p 4p ep do (oa r$2imy:nooL5c JifUIIII/lifilil/ 46 Z3 II 4^ mitimn mmwH li IS yiicouHnscBK llll!lllil|lllll SO Zl aryxrtooDi iiiiiiii)i y » *r W///.S H < 31 5 2 mf^^ li 7 mctm99CHAL cMUMUir DulGRam 4.— Percentage 6t teacbors holding vBriotis kinds of oertlfleates In different types of schools fa PennsylvftnfB. the teachen el the same couivty and also among the separate eoisnitftee^ For examiriiey in oonntiee 1, 7, and 11 there are practically the same number ol (Ae-teaeher scfaoc^ averaging 218 under eotiAty sttperrision. Bowever, co«uafty 1 has 142 teachers hold* ing proviedonal certifieates, county 7 has 113, and county 11 has 41. At the same time county 1 hae 9 nofmal-echool graduates^ county 7 hae 56, and ecnasty 11 hae 147. In the ease ol the pff^fessiomil certificates, county 11 has only 4 teacheis holdioig thia claes €i certificate, while counties 1 and 7 have 41 and 40, nspectively. ioiother very intereslinig eomparnon can be made among countiee 6^ d, and 15, haviE^ approximately 170 oae-teaeher ■choole in the open country. C(Mnty 6 hae 45 teachers holding normal-school certificates or diplomas, while connties 8 axHl 15 show the aetoai^ng record at havingonly 1 and 2 normal'sdbool grad^aitee respectively « In coiitast with these figures^ comity 5 has 73 teachen with i^viaionsl certi- ficates, while countiee 8 and 15 with practically ne ncnrmal school tndned teachers, as waa juat painted out, have 131 and 93 proyinonal certificate teachers, reepeetiv^y. Ceuntiea 17 and 28 each with over 300 on^teacher schools--the latest number of odf^ teachflflr seheeleamaog all the eountiesin the States-do* net differ gzieatly in the number of toachem^ beidiag pseinsional anid professioBal certificates. However, in the case o£ the nofSMl-echeol certificates and dipkmMB, the former county has 67, while the latter has oidy 2&, meaniag that the fimt county has ai^nixxaBateiy three times m 44 STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANU. many normal -school trained teachers as the second. The number of permanent certificates held by the teachers in these two counties also varies considerably, in that county 28, with 80, has nearly twice as many as county 17, with 45. Table 33 also gives the percentages of each kind of certificates by counties. In examining the fourth column of Division A, which gives the per cent of teachers holding normal- school certificates and diplomas in one-teacher schools, it can be seen that the range in per cent extends from 0.5 to 68 per cent, or expressed in numbers (Table 82) the range would be from 1 normal school graduate in one coimty to 147 in another county. However, the percentage of teachers holding normal-school certificates and diplomas in the 14 counties representing the middle 50 per cent of the group range from 1.6 to 18, with a quartile deviation of 8.2 per cent, indicative of a wide variation of per cent in the total distribution. These figures are really quite alanning when it is considered that 7 of these 28 counties have less than 2 per cent normal-school grad- uates teaching in the one-teacher rural schools. In the case of the provisional certificates, the per cents range from 19 to 73; the mid- dle 50 per cent of the counties extend from 50 to 57 per cent, indicating a quartile deviation of 5.3 per cent, an unusually close grouping about the median, 52 per cent, thus showing less variation in the total distribution than that representing normal- school certificates and diplomas. There are also di^erences apparent in the separate counties in regard to the pro- fessional and permanent certificates; the former having a range from 1 to 40 per cent, and the latter from 1.9 to 36 per cent. The permanent certificates have the shortest range and the lowest variation in per cents among the four classes of certificates in the various counties. The group of 26 counties for which we have data on the type of certificates held by the teachers in the schools of two and more than two teachers, according to Division B of Table 33, shows practically as great variation in the different types, of certificates among the diJ^erent counties as that in the case of the one-teacher schools. While the percentage of teachers holding normal school certificates and diplomas, as we have mentioned before in this discussion is 25, or 11 per cent higher than that in the one- teacher school group, yet the range is nearly the same, extending from 0 to 60 per cent. One-half of the difference between -the per cent at the fibrst quartile point and that at the third quartile point is 8 per cent, indicating practically the same kind of distribu- tion as in the case of the normal certificates and diplomas in the one-teacher schools, although maintaining the higher level, as expressed in the median and qiiartile points, at all points on the scale. The median per cent in the case of the provisional certificates is 30, a decrease of 22 points from the median per cent of provisional certificates in the one-teacher schools; and the quartile deviation, which is 8 per cent, also shows a much greater variation in the different counties. These unusually wide variations in number and per cent of the four kinds of cer- tificates held by the teachers in one-teacher schools of 28 counties of the State this current school year, 1919^20, might be attributed to a number of varying causes. Naturally one of the first questions that might be asked is, which of these counties has one of the 13 State normal schools located within its boundaries or in an adjoining county? County 11 has 68 per cent of its teaching force in the one-teacher schools, normal school graduates, and at the same time has one of the largest normal schools in the State. County 13, with the second highest per cent of normal school graduates, namely, 34.2 is also a normal school county. On the other hand, county 17 has a normal school in its midst, but only 18 per cent of the teachers in one-teacher schools are normal school graduates. While there can not be any question that a normal school located in a particular county makes for a larger number of normal school graduatee available for the schools of that county, if for no other reason than the fact that practi- cally every normal school in the State shows by its catalogue that the lai^est number of students from any one county are residents of the home county, yet the third county CXBTIFIGATIOK. 45 Above releRed to would etrtmuly fjLve us adequate reason to believe tiiat simply the nonnal schoors location in the county is not the exclusively controlling factor to which should be attributed the high percentage of normal school graduates teaching in a normal school county. Four of the counties listed in Tables 32 and 33 adjoining normal school counties are 6, 14, 18, and 28, in which there are 26, 7, 5.5, and 7.6 per cent of normal school graduates teaching in the one-teacher schools, a variation which makes it difficult to determine just how far the proximity of a normal school in an adjoining county is a constant factor. On the other hand, counties 5, 7, and 22 do not have a normal school within their boundaries and are not in close proximity to counties having normal schools, but they have the high percentages of 25, 25.6, and 20 per cent normal school graduates in the one-teacher schools, respectively. It is evident that these three counties, at least, are typical of a class on which other influences apart from the location of a State normal school are important factors. It was found that the counties having the largest number of normal school graduates as a rule have a large proportion of school districts with eight and nine months' school terms, with commensurately higher salaries, caused by the longer term. It would seem that, at least in some counties, the length of school term is another factor in explaining the higher percentage of normal school certificates and diplomas. On the other hand, as will be shown in the chapter on salaries, the very marked tendency on the part of many school districts in some of the counties fear paying the lowest minimum salary required by law has a tremendous bearing in accounting for the kind of certificate held by the teachers in such districts. Many school boards hire the teacher with the lowest type of certificate, requiring thereby the lowest minimum salary, in order to keep the teachers' salaries for their particular district as low as possible. While conditions as previously stated are unquestionably responsible in part for the tremendous variations in number and kinds of certificates frequently found between adjoining counties, nevertheless there is undoubtedly another very important factor, extremely difficult to measure, namely, the influence of the educational leadership in the different counties. While we have no direct evidence to substantiate this point of view, yet by weighing the focts already set forth we believe that we are reasonably safe in saying that the leadership in some of the counties has a tremendous bearing in maintaining high educational standards in regard to certificates, particularly in those counties where educational leadership wields a potent influence with members of the school boards of the different school districts. CERTIFICATES OVER A THREE-YEAR PERIOD. Since the data thus far presented on certificates give us information concerning the number and kinds of certificates held by the teachers for the current school year 191^20, it might be well to see how the certificate situation varies over a period of years. In the accompanying Table 34 will be found the number and kinds of cer- tificates held by the teachers in the one-teacher schools as indicated by the county superintendents in their teachers' directories in five typical counties from different parts of the State for the school years 1917-18, 191S-19, and 1919-20, respectively. At a glance it will be seen that there is a marked variation in some of these counties over the three-year period, especially in the case of the provisional certificates and of the normal school certificates and diplomas. This is probably of all the more interest since during the year 1917 and part of 1918 we were in the World War, causing certain social and economic conditions which in education resulted in a tremendous scarcity of teachers throughout the whole country. Its effect in 1919 would probably be felt all the stronger in the one-teacher schools in the rural districts, in view of the facts and conditions revealed throughout this study. 73438**— 22 4 46 STATUS OF RURAL TBACJHBB I2ff PENNSYLVANIA. Table ^^.—DittnbuHon of minkakaic (^ cmtii^iBtam Ott - Aoatfi d^ ^ura efexperimiice. 'KMnoC e^Mdence. To- tal. Per cent. Median Ctftificatss* 0 20« 1 86 t- . - 2^ 3 4- 2S 5S 7 24 5 6 4t 8 7 6 8 46 9 13 7 1 27 8 7 3 U 6 8 9 14 9 9 10-15- 14 19- 6 2 41 11 48 29 2Q 20 20- 24- "3 16 Id 25- 29- "i 14 a 30- 3* 2 3 18 4 35- 39- 40- 50 or •ver. . . • . . •years of exi>eri- ence. Shrevisiooai 1 181 AA 6X5' 47 315! 22 1041 13 a» Vrefessioiial Permanait 21 M 'ii 4 2 5 ""t 4.9^ 10.-9- Nooaal oortiflcate ordiplnma ^ 5n 29 7S 10 254 IS 4.5 ""s Total". 344 115 227 114 112 ' 1 1 62 78 43 31 32 121 62 34 18 27 15,' 7 6 1,448 10() 3. 3 Ksee Hie seliool llkWB of VkiuiarfXvmEBi requm tewhere to hove 2 jn&ew of wicceBBfuf experience before they can qualify fortlie inoieBsionqil certificate, the years of expe- rience in this group must necessarily be considerably higher than for those holding provoobnad eertlficates. Fortiiiennore, a profeanonal certificate cau be renewed three tiotteslbr'ft. period of three- y^&n each.* It would seem that under these circumBtancee tbe-medkBa years; A.%\ for the group holdings prof eBsional- certiticatea irtow, meaning Ifiat 56'pev cent out of the 315' teachers reporting have had an experience anywhere fhwi 2" years to approxunately 5 years. Again, ever 70 per cent of the gioup had 7 or fewer years of experiience. These facts would indicate that the 12 years-' limitation pi»ced u|xm the certxficste would seem- to cause many of tiiese teachers to qualify for the pemumeirt certificate and nonnai-school' ccaiificate ordxpioma. The group of teachers holding normal-school diplomas or certifieates shows by fat the widest distribution of .years of experience. The middle 90 per cent of the teachers reported teaching expesieoae eoetendiag' ftam 1.5 t9- TSL^- yean, indicating that the upp^ 25 per cent nua^e in ezpedance approximately fcom I2j&to 40 j^ean. Since the average teaching lile el a.BerBiAl*echool graduate from the Pennsylvania State normal schools is estimated atSj yean,? it is sale to conclude that the experience of the teachers holding nonoalrschoel' centificfl^es or diplomas ia* the one^teaches schools is probably higli= in eomparison wiilh the group of teachers in all types of schools holding normal- school* diplbmas. In spite of the fact that there is a general tendency for normal-school graduates to try to secure teaching positions in ur&aa communities just a& sooil as- pessible afifer haAong had a year on two of experience in the rural schools, the Mmodel dietribuliflii of thj^teachenr holding: normalrsehool diptomas^ indicated, by 54 per cent luudng 4 years or lese experience and 30 percent haviag 10 oe moue years of expesience, would help to bear out the concLufiion that nacma^echooL gradufttes eithec vemaia. in^^ the one-teacher rural schools foe su very limited number of yea» or continue for an indefboite length of time in this type of school. GEfSTTFlCATES AND A'OE- OF" TEACH1&S8>. JoL the light of the previotw discusBon ceacemimp the- experience of teachers, it m^ht be expected that a somewhat similar rerationship exists between the ages of teachers and the kinds of certificates held by this same group of teachers. In Table 36 the mediaa ages nuage from. 20.3 for the teachers holding provisional certificates to 37.3' fbr those holding a permanent certificate. It will, be noticed, too, that in tiie group* holding petmanent certifiestes, 50 per cent el the 194 teachenFreportdag vaage-^m; 37 to 60 yean^or more in age. These lacts are especially sign&Beant wheik eae eoiifliders the very* limited amniint of aradiwnir preparation and pnotoiWQiMil trriining' ^c^ thie- group of teachers possess. « Pa. Sch. Laws and App., 1919, Art. XIII, sec. 1304, 1300. * Pbilips, Geo. M. An. Rept. for Normal Schools. 48 STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANU. Table 36. — DistribtUion of certificates on hoiis of age of teaehen. Ages of teachers. Total. Per cent. Median ages. Certificate. 18 19 164 20 128 22 21 22 23 24- 26 26- 2fr- 30- 36-40- 27 29 34 30 44 45- 40 50- 54 55-00 or 50 over. Provisional 149 87 29 49 31 3 18 30 48 9 12 30 14 64 30 10 11 25 16 8 27 13 12 22 23 41 19 3 24 22 13 5 7 20 16 4 1 26 15 683 313 194 255 47 22 13 18 20.3 Professional 4 12 6 1 16 i 2 11 1 24.8 Permanent x . x . , 87.3 Normal certificate or diplOTPft 5 26 37 31 23.9 Total 154 180 187 147 101 90 129 71 60 105 62 47 46 22 21 14 1,445 100 23.0 ACADEMIC PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL TRAINING AS RELATED TO CERTIFICATION. In Table 37 the number and per cent of teachers having had secondary education are distributed according to the kind of certificates held by the teachers respectively. It will be seen in Division B that the 61 per cent of the teachers reporting as having had secondary education are distributed as follows: Seven per cent, less than 1 year; 4 per cent, 1 year; 11 per cent, 2 years; 17 per cent, 3 years; and 22 per cent completing a four-year high-school course. As their education was considered at length in the pre- ceding chapter, it is the purpose in this discussion to analyze the secondary educa- tion as reported by the teachers on the basis of the kinds of certificates held. Table 37. — DistribtUion of teachers by certificates on basis of their secondary education, DIVISION A.— DISTRIBUTION BY YEARS. Teachers report- ing. Without second- ary edu- cation. With second- ary edu- cation. Years of secondary education. Certificate. one year. One year. Two years. Three years. Four years. Provisional 678 308 190 264 187 121 114 144 401 187 76 120 43 28 23 4 17 12 15 13 74 41 10 32 130 48 17 43 218 Professional 58 Permanent Normal certificate or diploma 11 28 Total 1,440 566 874 98 57 157 247 315 DIVISION B.— DISTRIBUTION IN PER CENTS. Percent of teach- ers re- porting. Percent without second- ary edu- cation. Per cent with sec- ondary educa- cation. Secondary education in per cents. Certificate. Less than one year. One year. Two years. Three years. Poor yean. Provisional 45 25 12 18 28 40 60 55 72 60 40 45 6 9 12- 2 3 4 8 5 11 13 6 12 20 15 9 16 32 Professional Permanentx 19 Normal certificate or diploma. 10 Total per cent.. 100 30 61 7 4 11 17 22 CEBTIFICATIOW. 49 Among those reporting four years of eecondary education, the laigest group, or 32 per cent, hold proviaional certificates; the second laigest group, or 19 per cent, professional certificates; and the smallest group, or 6 per cent, are teachers under permanent certificates. In the case of the teachers having had three years of second- ary education, the largest proportion, or 20 per cent, are again found among the provisional-certificate class, while the second largest proportion hold normal-school certificates or diplomas. An interesting fact, however, is that the laigest per cent of teachers reporting one year or less, respectively, hold permanent certificates. In concddering these teachers further from the viewpoint of the different types of certificates held and of the proportion without secondary education, it is a rather striking fact that the largest group is found to be those holding permanent certificates, the second laigest those with normal-school certificates or diplomas, and the smallest those holding provisional certificates. Of course, it will be maintained that these conclusions should naturally be expected, since teachers holding permanent certifi- cates and normal-school diplomas and certificates are, as a rule, older and have had longer exi>erience, but probably have not had the same opportunity to attend high schools as have the teachers holding provisional certificates and possibly those holding professional certificates, but having fewer years of experience. As a matter of faict, according to the classification of certificates as defined by the State law, the em- phasis is placed predominantly upon experience as a requirement for those who wish to obtain the professional and permanent certificates; and thus on account of an examination system of certification not requiring as a prerequisite any definite amount of academic or professional training in a secondary school, normal school, or college, frequently only slight consideration is given to such training. From the data pre- sented it appears that a tremendous argument would be set forth for an immediate revision of the . . . examination route . . . certificate system, since approxi- mately 75 per cent of the 10,038 teachers in one-teacher schools hold certificates issued by 66 different county superintendents with the same possible number of county standards, in favor of one that will give greater credit for actual academic and professional educa- tion obtained in accredited schools. CERTIFICATES OF TEACHERS FROM STANDPOINT OF SUPPLEMENTARY TRAINING DURING SERVICE. Since the facts presented in the preceding chapter on the educational preparation of these teachers showed that only 5 per cent of the teachers holding provisional, professional, and permanent certificates had attended a normal school in preparation for teaching, apart from those who graduated from one of the Pennsylvania State normal schools, it was foimd that this small group was fairly equally distributed among those holding the three types of certificates above named. Consequently we shall restrict ourselves in this discussion to the supplementary academic and pro- feasional training of rural teachers received during service. By studying the data as shown in Tables 38 and 39, it is evident that only 38 per cent of the number of teachers reporting had received supplementary training during service. These are distributed as follows: Eight per cent in summer academies, 10 per cent in summer local or county normal schools, 12 per cent in summer State normal schools, 6 per cent in summer college courses for teachers, and 2 per cent by correspondence courses and miscellaneous ways. STATUS OF HURAL. 1 !i mm t _ji 3352 S" ! i 2 ! :-" - 1 ^ 3 «■""• 3 « *3*2 J ; 1 ^~' 55??- S2 r ^ S c,-« 2 £ -r— 2 3 "a*" a e SS" s A « i)X8 . S- If X —=' - 2 -— - 3 »-■ s • 2ES S _is:__ 1*3 : 19 P S ^eA ; M s "" : - a S3S i S e 32" i = ft! SS2S SS CBIOTEPICAlXION. 51 The tw» factan deienunkig the sup^ementary tmdisig of teachms, m pointecl o«t is the pwcediikg ch&p4er en educaitian, we again pfeaeat. The secend factec; aamely, the acceonbiiity el acheok, is ptvobably more clearly ehovm in the pirevieua chapttf in the column foff the typical countiee lollowingi the total dktiibution (Table 29); bat the fint iactor, the kind of certificate held by the teacher, stands out ncHre cleariy in Tables 38 and 39, wheie the training in service can be analyaed ior each group of teachees holdinf^ the different typss of certificates* Table 39. — Distribution of teachers in one-teacher echools an the basis of teacking expc- nerux — Total (Kstnbvitioii for 18 counties, followed by 8 typical counties. Years of experience. Total dUtrl- bHtioninlS counties. Count ica. Kiink- ber. Per cent. 1 2 3 4 5 6 11 5 15 5 11 3 2 3 1 1 5 8 8 2 7 8 0 334 120 199 104 112 72 7S 46 31 35 52 74 62 34 30 27 18 12 5 24 8 14 7 8 5 6 3 2 2 4 5 4 2 2 2 1 1 16 3 7 1 5 2 1 '*'"2" 3 ....„ 2 1 1 3 12 2 6 4 1 2 ■""3" ""'6* 1 8 "i" 14 6 12 7 11 7 10 2 \ 15 10 6 1 1 2 1 1 'I 9 3 1 *"'i 3 ""l ...... 20 5 3 5 8 5 6 1 1 1 1 8 8 4 3 3 1 13 11 20 1 7 2 22 3 6 4 3 5 5 6 8 7 3 8 4 9 6 10-11 8 13-14 9 15-19 6 20-24 3 25-29 1 30-34 2 1 35-39 4(M9 2 60 or over 1 2 Total 1,445 3.7 100 50 2.9 41 3.2 Ill 5.9 34 2.2 76 4.6 84 4.5 54 2.9 114 Median years of experience 4.6 y I* 1 The teachers holding normal-school certificates or diplomas have had little train- ing during serv'ice, and those among this group who thus reported usually attended a summer college course or obtained additional training in a summer State normal school. In the case of the teachers holding provisional, professional, and permanent certificates, supplementary training is a most \'ital factor in aiding them to secure the next highest type of certificate, according to the principles followed in the Penn- sylvania examination s^'stem for securing certificates. It is of interest to note that 18 per cent of these reported such supplementary training in summer academies or local county normal schools. The largest per cent of teachers holding professional certificates attended summer academies and local county normal schools, which is e\'idence that these teachers elected the schools which were not only most accessible, but which also best afforded them the academic preparation in the subjects listed for the particular certificate for which they were applicants. As the accessibility of schools is so clearly demonstrated in the eight typical counties in the previous chapter, it does not seem necessar)' to present these counties on the basis of certificates a second time. It is, however, fortunate that such conditions exist, since it probably helps to increase the number of teachers who will avail themselves of additional training in service. It might not be out of place here to give a bit of the writer's experience in which the opportunity was afforded to interview a number of rural teachers holding pro- visional, professional, and permanent certificates in Pennsylvania while helping to prepare the schedule of courses of those who attended one of the summer 6- weeks' collie courses in the State. In selecting their courses those teachers invariably chose such branches of study as were needed for additional subjects on certificates 62 STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. in order to qualify them for the next highest certificate. They invariably selected academic subjects — frequently a review of such studies as algebra, general history, and Latin — ^rather than courses either academic or professional, of more immediate use to their professional work. This was particularly unfortunate, as this college specialized in courses in rural sociology, home economics, and agricultural subjects, affording for teachers coming from rural schools an unusual opportunity to enrich their knowledge and experience in a field of work so greatly needed in rural com- munities. From the data presented both in this and in the preceding chapter it seems opportune to emphasize again the great necessity for the. changing of the certificate laws so that a greater premium will be put on both academic and professional training in accred- ited schools. But to do this, additional schools must be provided, especially in the 53 coointies that do not have a State normal school to assist in training, both aca- demically and professionally, the laige number of new teachers needed each year in the rural schools. chapter VI. EXPERIENCE AND TENURE. The number of years that teachers in the one-teacher schools remain in service in the rural districts in Peiinsylvania varies greatly. In Table 39 ^ it will be seen that the experience ranges all the way from the ''beginners/' or new teachers without any experience, to teachers claiming 55 years of teaching service. The median years of experience of the entire group of 1,445 teachers replying to the questionnaire is 3.7. This teaching service was generally performed in the rural districts, as only 90 teachers, or approximately 6.5 per cent of all the teachers constituting the study, reported having taught previously in borough or city schools. As this group comprises both men and women, it might be of interest to call the reader's attention to Tables 50 and 51 in the discussion on teachers' salaries,' where the median years of experience for men is 7 and for women is 3.2, thus showing that there is a tendency for men, although fewer in number, to remain in the service longer than women. It should be remem- bered, however, that the average years of experience are kept down because of the fact that 334 teachers, or 23 per cent, are teaching for the first year, without any previous experience. By deducting this number from the entire group, the median for the remaining teachers with previous teaching experience is 5.3 years. Accord- ing to the data in the table, 319, ^ 22 per cent, had only 1 and 2 years of experience; 216, or 15 per cent, 3 and 4 years of experience; and 262 teachers, or 18 per cent, reported that they had taught for a period of years ranging from 5 to 10 years. The most striking fact is that 314 or, 22 per cent, reported that they had taught in rural districts for 10 or more years. In the 8 typical counties listed in Table 39, the range of experience varies consid- erably, as indicated by a median of 2.2 in county 4 and 5.9 in county 3. Comparing these counties from the point of view of the prevailing type of certificates in counties 4, 1, and 7, in which the teachers average low in years of experience, the larger propor- tion hold provisional and professional certificates; while in county 3, in which the teachers rank high in years of experience, the larger proportion hold permanent and normal-school certificates and diplomas. In this connection it should be recalled from the previous chapter (Table 35) that teachers holding provisional certificates have 0.9 years of experience; those holding professional, 4.9; permanent, 15.9; and those having normal-school certificates and diplomas, 4.5.^ Experience, however, as discussed in this chapter, implies very little supervision. This can be clearly inferred from the large number of one-teacher schools in many of the countieB with the supervision of only 1, 2, and possibly 3 superintendents, and again from the very little time that these superintendents can spend in the rural schools as reported by the teachers themselves in Chapter III. The median^ 8.7 years for teachers with experience in one-teacher rural schools, ranks considerably higher in Pennsylvania than in certain other States for which we have data. For example, the median number of terms taught by all teachers in rural schools of Ne- braska is 1.85.* For the entire State of Colorado in 1917 the teachers averaged 3 > See p. 5. I See p. 73. • See p. 47. < Rural Teachers of Nebraska, IT. S. Bu. of Ed., Bui., 1919, No. 20, p. 40. 53 54 STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. years of experience.* An anSysie of reports from the State of North Dakota showed in 1916 an average length of service for rural teachers of 2 years.® The average teaching life of rural teachers in 1918 in South Dakota was 3.76.^ The recent Virginia survey shows that in 1918-19, the median number of years of experience for white teachers wafl ] .4.8 The average experience ©f the teaefaeis in one-teacher schools in New York State in 1919 was 6.7 years, a considerably higher average than that of Pennsylvania.' Experience for the rural teacheis lor Ite United States as a whole is slightly over three years.^° STABILITY OF THE TEACHING FORCE. Table 40 shows the numb^ of different schools in which the teachers represented IB Table 39 who have had one or more yean of experience have taught. The median HTMttbCT of scho<^ taught by the 1,060 teachers reporting is 3. The total distribirtion shows that 530, or slightly more than one-hall the whole numb^, have taught in 3 or more schoolff; 234 teachers, or 22 per cent, taught in from 5 to 12 different schools; and 24, or slightly over 2 per cent, of the teachers daim that they have held poeitioas in 12 to 20 different schools. This variation, shown for the group as a whole, is also evident in the 8 typical counties, in whidi the median number of scIkk^ taught ranges from 2.4 t<> 3.7, respectively. These facts seem to show a most perplexing situation, both for superintendents and teachers in that the tenure of such a high percentage of teachers is so uncertain. Table 40. — Distribution (rfteachera on bnais a/ number c^ different sckooh taught for IS coyaitieij followed by 8 topical counties. Places taught. Total distribu- tioii in 18 cocm- li«s. ^ Conntrea. Num- ber. Pa- ceut. 1 2 8 4 5 8 7 8 1 230 290 153 119 83 60 31 29 13 US n 6 a 2 2 22 2S 15 12 1 8 3 1 1 1 6 9 3 8 S 8 12 14 7 4 1 19 22 23 8 4 4 1 3 9 27 6 7 7 3 2 6 1 1 1 2 7 14 14 6 6 4 1 1 2 2 2 1 8 10 4 3 3 3 10 14 7 6 1 1 ...... 10 2 24 3 12 4 12 6. 7 6 8 7 6 8. 2 9 1 **"i* 1 10-U a 12-13 1 M-iS ...... . »•..,•. 1 1&-17 1 18-» 1 1 ai> 1 1 t Total l,OfiO 3.0 100 34 3.6 40 2.4 89 3.2 72 3.0 62 3.7 85 3.0 40 2.7 BO Mwliftn nijmber 9f i>laces. - 3.6 The relationship between the number of years of experience and the number ol different schools taught can probably be more clearly analyzed by studying thiO Idlowiiig Table 41. The instability, and in many instancea nncertaitt teAUjre» can be very plainly shown by observing the group of 64 teachera with five years' teaching «aq>erience, of whom 28 have tau^t in I school, 1& in 2 schools, 24 in S schoolsy 11 ia 4 schools, and 3 in 5 different schools. AnuNOg those having had 10 years ' oxpecieace, * The Administration and Support of the Colo. Sch. System, U. S. Bu. of Ed., Bui., 1917, No. 5, p. 74. * Monahan, A. C, and Cook, K. M., Survey of Wyoming, U. S. Bu. of Ed., Bui., 1916, No. 29, p. 52. ' Educ. System of S. Dak. U. S. Bu. of Educ. Bui., 1918, No. 31, p. 210. ■ Va. Pub. Sch. Survey, pp. 136 and 333. * Engelhardc. The Teaching Profession in the State of New York. M The Administration and Support of the Colo. Sch. System. Bu. of Educ. Bui., 1917. BXPSRI£ITCB ASH TBNUBB. 55. it-mSL be«eeii that only 2 hav« taught in 1 sehool, 5 in 2 schools, 5 in: 3, 8 in 4, 3 in 5,. 2 in 6^ and 1 in. 7, 8, and 9 distant Bchool». The median number of schools tau^t for the entire- group is 3; and tha^ median, yeue ol expedence i» 7.5. Thifr higher median, is aeeounted for by the &ct thsA thia- SpQup does not iikclude the* lasge propoution* ol teaoheiB without any previous expe* rienoe; By draining, lines through, these medians) 7.5 and: 3, it will, be observed that a»veiy large majpiity of the caseft are found in the quadmnt 1 to 6 yeans^of expe* rience and 1 to 3 schools taught, and likewise 6 to 4Q or more yearn of experi^ice aod 3 to 20 different schools ttm^bt, also indicating, that the number of places taught by these teachers increases in. direct proportiDn to- the number of years of experience. The 'ooeffidoDit of oocrelation. for the entire- gUDup' was found to be very bigh,.r.=r.79 P.E.»±.0O78. (Peaison's Product^Moment Method.) Tabls 41. — Relatiwi of nwn^Mr of yean of experience to mmiber of different schools taught. Experlene^. Diflerent schools taught. Total. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10-U 12.13 14-15 16-17 18-19 20 1 100 81 16 28 8 8 100 2 , 102 3T 50 18 17 8 9 7 5 6 10 2 2 184 8 25 25 18 U 10 6 5 5 10 9 4 1 8 11 10 14 12 8 8 3 13 8 6 6 2 4 3 4 2 93 4 99 6 3 8 6 6 T 3 5 13 10 5 e 1 3 7 1 2. 64 L ..... 1 2 1 8 4 5 1 5 1 2 1 . 62. 7 1 48 8. ,.. 38- 9« ..... 2 3 ..... 1 4 6 3 1 5 3 6 r 2 1 1 « 31 10, 2 28 la ,.. 22' 12rl4 1 2 2 i 3 5 .• . . . 1 1 1 4 3 5 68- 15-17 AT ift-ao 1 1 3 33 21-23 1 23 ^4-25 23 2r-29 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 19 80-31 5 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 2 36 3&-89 16 tfoc-ftbove ..... ^ — 1 14' TotaL.... 275 278 169 120 66 32 29 31 20 21 11 4 0 1 2 l.OoO r-.79 P.E.-±.0078. Thie unuBnai' instability of t^e teaching force among the rural teachers can probably be accounted for laagely by the practice of many school boai*ds in school districts in rural communities transferring teachers freely from one school to another. Several county superintendents consulted on this point said that some school boards in their counties bdieve that a teaeher should be transferred at least at the end of two years, and that by so doing not only will the efficiency of the teacher be increased, but the school will be greatly benefited by securing the "new" teacher. Then, again, the size o£ the school and the difficulty in manc^ment ae viewed- by the directors are fectors which influence the transferring of teachers. It might be pointed out that Table 43 in this same chapter shows that 37 per cent of the teachers in the one-teacher schoola during this cument yev 191^-20^ are exfperienced- but are teaching in new positions, which data, evidence all the more stron^y the practLces indicated through*- out thia discussion. STABILITY OF T£ACHIN« FORCB Q¥£S A. TH«>RE-YEAR PEBfOD.. The very great difficulty that superintendents experience in administering, their sdiools from the standpoint of the instability of the teaching force is again well exem- plified in Table 42. These data were obtained from the directories covering a period 56 STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. of three years, issued by the county sux>erintendent8 for the school years 1917, 1918, and 1919 from six different counties, typical of all sections of the State. In tracing a one-teacher school for a period of three years it was found (Division B) that only 15 per cent of the teachers in the one-teacher schools taught the same school during this length of time. Forty-four per cent of these schools had one teacher for two years and one teacher for one year. The astonishing fact revealed by the data is that 41 per cent of the one-teacher schools in these six counties, including every school, were taught by three different teachers during this period of three years. Tlie second part of this table gives the information concerning the two-teacheif schools of the same coimties. While a similar tendency seems to exist in these schools, we are glad to know that 31 per cent of these schools have had one teacher for a period of three yean, and that only 26 per cent have been taught by three different teachers. Table 42. — Nwmher of different teachers in one-teacher schools and two-teacher schools^ over a period of three years j 1917, 1918, and 1919, in six typical counties. DIVISION A— DISTRIBUTION BY YEARS. One-teacher schools. Two-teacher schools. No. of county. Three different teachers. One teacher two years and one teacher one year. One teacher three years. Total. Three different teachers. One teacher twovears and one teacher one year. One teacher three years. Total. 1 57 65 108 03 11 152 69 58 155 67 25 123 38 14 64 4 3 164 127 317 124 •39 325 17 4 23 1 7 15 21 6 54 5 8 20 12 4 41 2 5 17 50 2 14 3 118 4 8 6 20 6 52 Total 446 487 163 1,096 67 114 81 262 DIVISION B— DISTRIBUTION. IN PER CENTS. One-teacher schools. Two-teacher schools. No. of county. Three different teachers. One teacher twovears and one teacher one year. One teacher three years. Total. Three different teachers. One teacher two years and one teacher one year. One teacher three years. Total. 1 35 43 34 51 28 47 42 46 49 46 64 38 23 11 17 3 8 15 100 100 100 100 100 100 34 29 20 13 35 29 42 42 45 62 40 38 24 29 35 25 25 33 100 100 2 3 100 4 100 6 100 100 6 • Total per cent.... 41 44 15 100 26 43 31 100 Considerable variation, particularly in the case of the teachers in the one-teacher schools, will be observed in comparing the six counties. For instance, in countj'^ 1, Bivision B, the records show that 23 per cent of the one-teacher schools had the same teacher for three years, and 35 per cent of the schools had three different teachers. On the other hand, in county 4 only 3 per cent of the one-teacher schools have had the same teacher, and 51 per cent have had three teachers; or, expressed in numbers, as shown in Division A, four of the schools out of the 124 had the same teacher over a period of three years, and 63 schools had three different teachers. It should EXFERIENCB AITO TEKURB. 57 be noted, however, that in county 4 a large proportion of the school districtd have seven months school terms, a great many of the teachers hold provisional certificates, and the school boards as a rule pay their teachers the minimum salary. On the other hand, county 1 has a large number of school districts with eight months terms, and the teachers for the most part hold professional and permanent certificates and normal- school diplomas. County 3, with a State normal school located within its boundaries, represents what might be termed the average for the group, in that 17 per cent of the schools report one teacher for the three-year period and 34 per cent three different teachers. If these conditions, such as were found to exist in the six counties which we have just discussed, obtain over the entire State of Pennsylvania it would mean that among the 10,038 one-teacher schools there have been during the past three years, 1917, 1918, and 1919, approximately— 4, 100 schools with 3 different teachers. 4, 400 schools with 1 teacher 2 years and 1 teacher 1 year. 1, 500 schools with 1 teacher over the 3-year period. 10.000 These facts should help to bring forcibly before the school authorities of the State the tremendous problem of teacher tenure or instability of the teaching force that county superintendents are constantly obliged to face. This study, as previously stated, will not discuss causes and possible remedies, but it does clearly point out the fact that something must speedily be done to solve this most unfortunate con- dition in the rural schools. NEW TEACHERS WITHOUT EXPERIENCE AND EXPERIENCED TEACHERS IN NEW POSITIONS. The county superintendents of 18 counties from all sections of the State indicated in their directories of teachers for the present school year, 1919-20, those teachers, both in the one-teacher and two-teacher schools, who are new, that is, without any experience, and those in a new position although experienced. These data are tabulated in Table 43, Division A, showing that 780, or 30 per cent, of the teachers in the one-teacher schools of these 18 counties totaling 2,640 are "beginners," without any previous exx)erience, and that 977, or 37 per cent, of the teachers in the one- teacher schools, while experienced, are teaching in a new position. This means that 67 per cent of the one-teacher schools of these counties have a different teacher this year from last. In Division B of this same table the data are reported for the teachers in the two- teacher schools in 14 of these counties. These data are also obtained through the directories as furnished by the county superintendents. Of the 606 teachers in two- teacher schools, 71, or 12 per cent, are new teachers without any previous experience, and 197, or 33 per centj of the 606 teachers, although experienced teachers, are in a new position. Since these two-teacher schools are located in the same counties as the one-teacher schools, it is interesting to note the marked difference between the one-teacher and two-teacher schools in regard to the percentage of new teachers with- out any previous experience. 5» STATUS OF BURAIi. TBAeHBB^ I» PBNNSYLVANIA. Table 43. — Numher and per cent o/jiew teaehers vntbaul experience a$ui with- experience in a new position in one-teacher sdioole and two-teacher echooU in 18 counties. DIVISION A.— ONS-TSAOHRR SGHOOLSL No. of county. teacher New teftcbers without expe^ rience. Tesebers with esc-' perlence in new position. BerercentageB as found in these 18 typical counties hold true for the State as a whole, it would mean that among the 10,038 teachers in one-teacher schools, approximately— 3,000, or 30 per cent, are new teachers without previous experience; 3,700, or 37 per cent, are experienced teachers in a new position; 3,300, or 33 per cent, are teacheis in tiie-aame position as last year. 10,000, total. In comparing the per cent of new teachers in Pennsylvania this year with the avail- able data from other States, it appeals that in. Aiabama in 1918 there were '^17.6 per- cent rural and village teachers in their first year," ^' in South Dakota "31.2 per cent of the rarsl' teachers ate teaching- their first schoor," ^in Vii^ginia in 191»-19 "35:9 per cent white teachers in one-teacher sdiools hadi no experience," '^ and in New York **lTper cent of the teacher»< were on their first year's experience in 1918^19." • According to an unpublished mvestigation made by the bureau of certification and tiaining^ of teachers in the 8Ftatte department of public instruction this number of 3,060' new teachers wfthout any p^e^'ious experience in one-tfeacher schoolb iis approxi- m&teFy one-half of the entire number of the new Iseachers under county superiTsion.''^ The figures ay shown by the report are 5,162 "new teachers." Bfowever, as eight of the counties of the State are not included in the report, if the same percentage of new teacheiB should' obtain in these missing counties, it would mean that forthis year, 1919-20; there are according to this State report approximiately 6,200 "new teachers" among' the- enl&e number of 23 ,80r teachers under county supervision . This number of new teacheis is considerftbly higher than the number of new teachers in 1*917-19 given in the annual' report issued by the State superintendent of public instruction in 1918, in which it is reported that 4,044 teachers under county supervision had no pre\dous experience.^* According to a study made in Pennsyh'unia in 1917 there were 4,697 new teachers needed in the schools under county supervision, of whom 2;876 were needed in the rural schools..*^ In the light of these facta it is evident that the demand for new teachers has greatly increased during the past few years.. When it is- considered that approximately 1,850 prospective teachers were graduated from the Pennsylvania State norma! schools in 1919, of whom, according to the normal school principals,*" approximately 15 per cent, or 275, entered one-teacher rural schools to meet the demand for approximately 3,000 new teachers alone, not to mention the 6,000 needed in all schools under county sux)ervij3ion, some estimate c»n be formed of the great teacher emergency in Pennsylvania. Many additional training facilities, as well as the enlarged use of those now ia existence,, must be provided or tha achoela, if they axe to be continued, wiil be- filled neoessairil^y witih- an iimdeqaate aad pooriy tfained teaching foree t^hrotigh lowensd standards of admission. ■ ■ - ■ ■■■■ ■ . ■ ■■■ I I .■■■ ■»■ - ■■ 1 1 11 ■ n An Bduc&tnmal Study of Alabama. JT. S. Bti. of Ednc, Bn!'., VfVd; No. 41, p. 319: f Educ. System of S. Dak. U. S. Bti. of Bdtie. ptU., 1918i No. 31, p. 210. " Va. Pub. Sch. Surrey, p. 338: 9 Engelhardt. The Teaching Profession In the State of New York. u Unpublished report of the Teacher Shortage by the Bureau of Certification and Training oTTeacfaeFS, Dept. of Pub. Instruction for Pennsylvania. i< Rep. State Supt. Pub. Instruction, Harrisburg, 1918, p. 611. w Harbold, P. M. Proc. Principals of Pa. State Normal Schools, 1917, p. 24. M Replies to a questionnaire sent to State normal-school principals of Pennsylvania. Chapter VII. SALARIES. The salaries received by teachers in the one-teacher schools in Pennsylvania vary greatly, both in respect to those paid to teachers in schools other than one-teacher schools of the same county and in respect to those paid teachers in the same type of schools but in different counties. In addition to the data on salaries secured directly from the teachers of the 18 counties covered by the questionnaire for the year 1917-18, information was obtained from 15 county su'perintendents regarding the salaries paid to all the teachers under their supervision in 1918-19. These facts have been worked up in the following tables and diagrams. The data taken from the official directories comprising the salaries of all the teachers in the one-teacher schools of the respective counties for the school year 1918-19 are complete and accurate, inasmuch as they are made up from the annual reports submitted to the county superintendents by the secretaries of the school boards of the various school districts. In each case the salary is the total amount received by the teachbr during the school year, irrespective of the length of term, which, in Pennsylvania, varies from 7 to 10 months.' ONE-TEACHER SCHOOLS IN TOWNSHIPS. The salaries of the teachers in the one-teacher schools in the 15 counties repre- sented by 2,368 cases, as shown in Table 44, division A, range from $315 to $800, a difference of $485 between the amounts paid the lowest and highest salaried teachers. The median salary of this group is $411, which means that 1,184 teachers, or half the number, receive less than this amount for the school year. Interpreting this salary by months, it represents an amount equal either to $54 on the basiB of the average school year for townships of 7.6 months (Table 46),^ or to $34.25 on the basis of the calendar year. The middle 50 per cent receive a salary ranging from $383 to $478, with a quartile deviation of $47.50, which fact indicates a close grouping of the salaries about the mid-point. 1 Since these data on salaries were gathered and tabulated the Pennsylvania Legislature, in June, 1019, passed what is known as the ''Woodruff salary bill.'' Through this measure the 8alarie6 of all teachers who received less than SlOO per school month were increased 25 per cent in 1919-20, those receiving $100 and not more than tlfiO were increased 20 per cent, etc. Since this law was interpreted to affect the teaching position, and since practically all the teachers in the rural schools received less than $100 per month In 1918-19, as will be shown in this study, (or practical purposes it Is therefore safe to add 25 per cent to the amount of salary herein set forth, to determine the salaries paid durini; the current school year 1919-20. Pa. Sch. Law, and app., 1919, Art. XII, sec. 1210. > See p. 66. 60 SALARIES. 61 :$ o o t o I o i! * ff P 3 o o M H < « o I o OQ "S- C3 s H PQ ^3 S o o I i ft S I 8 o Z S§§l§§§§l§§iii§§ C^M^rH 94iH»^«-« to 2«8« C9M3 uiwH C4 00 «D s «"«* »"* r-»HN • ■* 3j « '* « t* g N W gSS5 :s§8'-«5j«-"^»^ 1^3 a^'aga O eo '<4« «o <-> "« <« CO 90 -^i C» *H e^co Si eo«D §s as 8 S88s*'«aas'-"»g§*- N g^QgCO-Ww^J;.* c»-^t>>ooc4eoo>oeo toeo s N"* 822 g3S5«^S w «?3^a2 t !o oo ^Mto^ioor^aoako^cqco^u) 1-1 fHi^f-lfHr^ 73438*>— 22- 62 STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. QQ o o n u » I O < w Eh P4 O ^ <: o I » O CQ S461 490 392 577 ) «Q OC' t^ Q a »o of • -< 05 S > »^ ■«»• lO Tf Ifl 9 2 s «o 933 |n JMOoa W5 - 'o eo ^^^Ig^*^ ; 3 I •^r 1-1 ^ »H o f-i i-H eo ^ COiH^ r- ooo • 9 COO 1^ CIMOOtO • CO s r-4 t^ d 00 OC iH I-I 1^ s I"* 00 CI r<> <-< Qo d eo b- ■ lio s esii-i 1-1 "H 86 116 c3e§ M COdMO • l-« p-4 C«-.cog|C^ »-lCI fH s l>.C«l .HW»H '■«*' 1-4 ^ es - - — p^ !»H •H a leo 1-4 cc ^ tfl « fx 1 1 00 OJ s s • Q »-• o o •00 O o m < s o 3 i 52! O OQ > Q 3 CO •o «c CO g CI s^ 00 3 3 s ^ CO g 3 OI 3 o :: CO 'd S c»f eg oa Ch CO 0) •^1 «^ iC SALARIES. 63 Now, turning from the study of the group of countieB as a whole, wide differences in salaries paid in the individual counties are noticeable. The median salaries of 8 different counties are lower than the group median, 1411; coifnty 3, with a median of 1378, falls as far as $33 below that of the entire group. Its range extends from |315 to $485, this latter amount being only $7 higher than the third quartile (the 75 per cent point) for the entire group. County 13, while having the same low range as county 3, $315-$485, has, however, a better distribution in salaries, evidenced by its median (ailing on a higher point on the scale, namely, $385. In contrast with these counties ranking low in salaries as compared with the stand- ards for the group as a whole, is county 10, which has a median salary of $500. The salaries of one-half the teachers of this county are greater by $22, or more than the amount representing the 75 per centile, $478, of the composite group. County 6 likewise has a median salary of $500, which is $122 higher than the mid-point of county ONE-TEACHER RURAL SCHOOLS-TOWNSHIPB. TWO AND MORE THAN TWO TEACHER 8CHOOLS--TOWN8HIP8 RURAL SCHOOLS— COMBINED. BOROUGH ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. RURAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS— TOWNSHIPS. SECONDARY SCHOOLS— BOROUGHS. t90 ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS, ENTIRE STATE (Including cities).' 708 DiAOBAM 5.— Distribation of median salaries of elementftry and secondary teachers in 191H-19 In the different typos of schools in Fennsylvania. 3, $378, the lowest with respect to salary of all the counties reporting, and $89 higher than the median salary for the entire group, thus indicating an astonishingly wide range in median salaries. SCHOOLS OP TWO AND MORE THAN TWO TEACHEBS IN TOWNSHIPS. In order to show the true situation concerning the salaries paid teachers in the one-teacher schools in the open country, and to understand more thoroughly the causes for these existing conditions, it seems advisable to look into the salary situation in the schools of two and more than two teachers in townships. Table 44, Division B, indicates the salaries of the 933 teachers in these schools in the same 15 counties used in the previous division. The median salary for these teachers is $519; the range extends from $315 to $1,300; the middle 50 per cent from $460 to $630, with a quar- tile deviation of $85, which is almost twice as great as the deviation in salaries of teachers in the one-teacher schools, thus indicating a much wider distribution of salaries about the point of central tendency. In comparing the median salaries of the teachers in one-teacher schools, Division A, with the median salaries of those •Statistics of state School Systems, 1917-18, Bonner H. R., U. 8. Bo. of Ed., Bui. 1920, No. 11, P. 42. 64 STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. in two and more than two-teacher schools, Diviaion B, of the same individual countiee, it will be observed that the extent of difference in salaiies in the two types of schools is most pronounced, ranging from $311 in county 12 to $14 in county 3. The average difference for the entire group of 15 counties is $91. It should be especially emphasized that the median salary, which for practical purposes is approximately the same as the arithmetical average, is, in the case of the teachers in the schools of two and more than two teachers, $108 higher than that of the one-teacher schools in the same townships of the respective counties. Such conditions exist in spite of the fact that these two types of schools are frequently found in townships controlled by the same board of 'directors, in whose hands lies the power of determining the amoun^ of salary paid the teachers. Upon investi- gating some of the individual school districts in these counties, the writer finds that in the same townships teachers in the schools of two and more than two teachers are receiving as high as $20 more monthly salary than teachers with practically the same qualifications and in many cases an equal amount of experience in the one-teacher schools. In other words, teachers are frequently transleiTed by the school boards from a one-teacher school to a more centralised village scIkx^ of two or more than two teachere in the same district, not only being paid a larger salary, but in many cfases given a janitor besides. These &cts may help to explain the difficulties that county superintendents have to face in stabilizing their teaching force, and that school boards in their shortsightedness bring upon themselves in securing teachers to fill the vacancies in these one-teacher scho<^. The grand total distribution of the salaries paid the 3,301 teachers, including all schools of the townships for the 15 counties combined, will be found in Division C, Table 44. The median salary for this combined group of township elementary teachers is $449, and the first and third quartiles, $393 and $508, respectively, with a quartile deviation of $57. BOROUGH ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. The data relating to salaries in b<»oughs help to throw further light en the salary situation of the one-teacher schools. The median salary of the 1,205 borough elemen- tary teachers as found in Table 45 is $588. At a glance one may see that this amount is $139 higher than the median salary ($449) paid to the teachers in the combined group of schools in townships in 1^ same counties, and $177 higher than the median salary ($411) paid to teachers in the one-teacher schools in the open country. SALABIES, 65 I 00 § 8 3 O I I S u s § s5;?25ssga*''a;«sSc5S5 N c? fHM NW dM too M N CO N o eocti^ C4coi-i ooo 00 w C9 CO ^ S8 ait<>e4C4ioo •0(0 ■vaouseotD CO -HM vHi^QOd^O COCO CI e>« u) t« c^ ua o^>-< 00 s 9 S8 3 M^CtCO (0«HC«l M C4 ■*o coe« •-•«o OkiO^O CO'fClfHN CI iHPO CO *o s {:; i I SI a eo 98 I O s ■i s ■ ••••••• •o^^C4eo^*o *HC«eo^i00t«aoa»i-4t-4»^f^s and the remaining 226, or 39 per cent, are boroughs. It will be noticed that the average length, of term in townships is 7.6 months, while that in the boroughs ifl 8.6. Fifty-eight per cent, or over half, of the townships have a school term of 7 months, the minimum requirement by law, while only 11 per cent of the boroughs limit their terms to this minimum standard. On the other hand, it is interesting to note that almost the reverse is true in the case of the 9 months' term, namely, 53 per cent in boroughs, and 14 per cent in townships. In the case of the 8 months' term, townships and boroughs show no appreciable difference. Table 46. — Length of school terms in months in townships and boroughs of IS counties in 19'18. DIVISION A— TOWNSHIPa.^ Months. Counties. • Total. Per 1 27 1 2 32 9 3 28 8 1 4 3 11 17 5 3 3 6 7 8 17 3 2 9 2 5 10 9 4 3 11 12 13 21 14 13 6 15 35 1 cent. 7 5 33 17 16 4 2 8 12 14 7 41 13 4 3 1 21 232 104 59 8 SB 8 26 9 t4 10 2 Total 28 41 37 55 •- 7 16 31 6 22 22 2t 19- 36 403 100 DIVISION B.— BOBOUGHS.2 Months. Counties. H\r^^1 i Per 1 2 8 6 2 3 5 14 2 3 7 4 9 ■ « ■ • 4 6 6 7 1 6 4 8 2 4 12 9 10 11 12 2 1 9 13 3 4 2 14 ■ • ■ ■ « • » ■ 5 15 4 22 10 24 62 129 20 ceni. 7 n 8 1 16 5 22 1 1 ■ » * • 2 5 11 1 17 .... 1 1 6 3 10 • 9 23 27 9 53 10 9 Total 16 U 18 24 20 12 9 5 36 226 100 1 Arithmetical avora^'c of terms, 7.6 months* > Arithmetical average of terms, 8. 6 months. When the practice in individual counties is considered , it is apparent that there is very great variation in the length of school terms among the townships and boroughs. In counties 1 and 13 all the townships have a 7 months' term, with the exception of one township found in county 1, -while 2& out of 25 boroughs in these same couizties have 8 or 9 months' terms, which facts show that the townships, with 98 per cent main- taining a 7 months' minimum term, in comparison with the boroughs are being very much handicapped educationally by their shorter school terms. On the other hand, counties 6 and 11 have 76 out of 96 township districts with 8 or 9 months' terms, with county 11 having as many as 7 towBships raaintAining a school term of 19 months. * Rep. Supt. Pub. Instruction, 1918, pp. 372^401. SALARIES. 67 The practice in these townfihips, in comparison with the boroughs of the same coun- ties, shows that the length of school term is relatively the same. This practice is a commendable feature in the management of the schools on the part of the school boards of these townships, inasmuch as it affords educational opportunity equal to that offered in the boroughs. In the light of these facts it will now be seen what bearing the variation in the average length of school term has on the salary paid the teachers in the different types of schools. By consid^ng the average school term for townships as 7.6 months, and the yearly salary as either $411, the median salary for the teachers in one-teacher schools (Table 44, Division A), or $519, the median salary for the teachers in the school One-teacher schools.* State as a whole.* ^////////////y////y// ///// yy///y//y////'/////////////x^///^///////////y// One-teacher schools.* Two-teacher schools.' State as a whole.* 94i5 ■^■■■■■■■1 One-teacher schools.* 1562 VM?//ixm/A«///Mag^/ff//J/^^^^ State as a whole.7 $500 ■■■■■■■I^HBHi One-teacher schools.' 1600 Rg^g^^^^^^^^^^^Jg!^^^s^^^^ii^^^^^^s^ Two-teacher schools. 1976 iMmL»^>^^>>^y>«gyy^>vy>vy^^ State as a whole.^ 1635 WAV^rjjj^iJ^.'Jtxi.v/Mf'JA/Jsm:aa^ u. B. as a whole.' DuoBAic 6.— Median teachers' salaries in Pennsylvania in one-teacher schools, In two-teaoher schools, and in the State as a whole in 191»-19, compared with a typical Eastern, Southern, and Western State and United States. of two and more than two teachers (Table 44, Division B), it will be found that the average monthly salary is, in the first case, $54, and in the second, $68. Taking 'the median salary as $449 for the entire group of teachers in townships (Table 44, Division C), and dividing by 7.6, the average number of months in the school term, it shows a monthly salary of $59. However, if we consider 8.6 months the average length of term for boroughs, and the median borough salary as $588 (Table 45), it will be seen that the average monthly salary is $68. ' The above facts show that the average monthly salary in boroughs is $9 higher than the average salary received by the combined group of elementary teachers in townships. The average monthly salary for the teachers in schools of two and more than two teachers in townships is $68, exactly the same as the average monthly salary for the boroughs, which means that the higher salaries paid to teachers in boroughs, as compared with the schools of two and more than two teachers in the townships, are due apparently to the longer school term rather than the larger monthly salary. 0 Va. Pub. Sch. Snrvey, pp. 142, 337. • Seep. 62. TBonner, H. R. Statistics of State Sch. Systems, 1917-18, U. S. Bu. of Educ, Bnl. 1920, No. 11, p. 114. ■*The Rural Teacher of Nebraska. U. S. Bu. of Educ, Bui. 1919, No. 30, p 53. sEngelhardt, F. The Teaching Profession in the State of New York. 68 STATUS OF RURAL TEACHBB IN PENNSYLVANIA. However, the significaiit fact in all of this is that the teachers in one-teacher mral schools in these 15 counties receive on an average.$14 per school month less than the teachers in the schools of two and more than two teachers in the same townships, have the same length of school t^m, and are controlled by the same boards of education. There seems to be no logical reason why teachers of practically the same training and experience in one-teacher rural schools should receive leas salary than those in schools of two or more than two teachers, and since the facts show that this difference does exist to such an extent as to average $14 per month, not to mention the extreme differences at the upper and lower ends of the range, it certainly does give a tremendous argument in favor of an extra State ''bonus" to these teachers. This principle was recognized in the recent Woodruff salary bill providing an extra State bonus of $5 per month to rural teachers, but we can not see any reason why this small amount should be considered at all adequate to meet the situation in Pennsylvania, provided the bonus scheme is decided upon as the best plan to solve this, one of the most difficult phases of the rural school problem. The evidence so far cited seems to warrant the conclusion that one of the main factors in explaining variations in annual salary in counties is the difference in length of school terms in townships and boroughs. Prom this pronounced difference between townships and boroughs, and from the added fact that school boards in these town- ships and boroughs usually pay only the minimum salaries, teachero would naturally be drawn, on economic grounds alone, if on no other, from the rural one-teacher schools to the schools of two and more than two teachers in townships paying higher salaries, and of course to borough elementary schools with the longer school terms. It is also a noteworthy fact that many boroughs have a small number of teachers, consisting in some of the counties of 1, 2, and S teachers, and in two of the counties listed in Table 46 the boroughs have an average of 4 teachers for the entire county. Certainly a situation, for example, in which 9 teachers in a township receive a min- imum salary of $45 or $50 per month for a 7 months' term, when in the same town- ship there is located a small borough of 1, 2, or 3 teachers receiving a minimnTn salary of $55 or $60 with an 8 months' term, to say the least is not conducive to the main- taining of a stable teaching force or the improving of the status of ihe teacher in the one-teacher schools of such a township. One might well ask the question whether some form of county local unit of more centralized school control would not help to solve these problems directly affecting the rural teachers, in which the county superintendent and county board of educfr* tion would have more power in maintaining more imiform salary schedules and a more equitable school term. SALARY IN RELATION TO CEKTIFICATES. Since it was shown in the pTe\dous chapter that the types of certificates held gen- erally by teachers in the one-teacher rural schools in Pennsylvania are provisional, professional, permanent, and State normal certificates or diplomas, we shall now see how salaries in 1918, as reported through the questionnaires, are distributed on this basis. In the accompanying Table 47, the salaries of 1,383 teachers from 18 counties of the State are distributed according to the type of certificates held. Of this total number reporting, 47 per cent hold provisional certificates, 22 per cent professional, 13 per cent permanent, and 18 per cent State normal certificates or diplomas, which percentages C(»rrespond quite closely with the percentages of certificates held by the teachers in 28 coimties of the State as reported in Chapter V. aAr.ABTWR. 69 Tablb 47. — Salaries paid to Uachen in one-4eachar schools according to ceriificaUs held. Oartiflcstes. _ 1300- 9324 I32&- 1349 1350- 9374 $375- $399 $400- $424 $425- "449 $450- $474 $475- $499 ProwlUrfonftl. 3M 10 80 50 162 79 38 113 85 39 42 6 30 IS 9 8 19 14 Professional 24 31 Normal certiflrates and diplo Total mas 36 42 35-1 10 80 248 315 117 54 111 Certificates. 1500- $524 1355- $M9 S574 S675- 1599 $800- $049 $65&- $700 Total. Per cent. Median salaries. Fmriffloiml 2 3 8 6 1 13 13 11 1 5 5 9 64K 299 180 247 47 22 13 18 $323 Professional... 2 1 5 1 3 3 i' 1 338 Psmiaiient 421 Normal certificates and di- plomas 427 Total 19 38 20 8 7 2 1,383 100 400 By studying this table one can see that over 50 per cent of the teachers holding provisioBftl certificatee receive a salary of 1315, the minimum legal salary for a seven- months' school term in 1918.'^ The second largest number in the group holding pro- visional certificates receive a salary of $360, which amount is the minimum monthly salary of $45 required by law, for an 8 months' term. Practically 75 per cent of the number of teachers who reported holding |»*ovifiional certificates receive a minimum salary of $45 per month for a 7 or 8 months' school term. In the case of teachers holding professional and permanent certificates, more than half the number receive $385 and $420, respectively — again the minimum monthly salaries Sch. Laws of Pa., 1917, Art. XII. sec. 1210. 70 STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. practice of school boards in their nonrecognition of professional training by their per- sistence in paying these teachers only the minimum amount required by law. These facts alone show that the minimum-salary law is probably the most potent factor in determining salaries in the rural districts. The same facts and tendencies prevalent among the combined group of coimties which we have just discussed are probably even better illustrated in the accompanying Table 48, showing how salaries are distributed according to certificates in four typical counties. It is not the purpose of the writer to analyze the salaries paid teachers in these counties and the causes for the same, but merely to indicate, by using the four typical counties, the wide variations that exist in the number and kinds of certificates held by the teachers, together with their accompanying salaries. In counties 1 and 2 a large majority of the townships have a minimum school term of seven months, while in counties 3 and 4 more than one-half have eight and nine months' terms (Table 46). The same general practice of paying the minimum salary required by law, previously shown as prevailing among the counties as a whole, is even more apparent in each of these individual counties. Table 48. — Salaries paid to teachers in one-teacher schools according to certificates held (Four typical coniities.) COVNTY 1. Certificates. 1300- 1324. 47 1325- $349. S35(>- $374v 2 $37&- 1399. 3 26 $400- S424. $42&- $449. $450- $474. $475- >499. $500- $524. $525- $549. $550- $574. $575- $599. $600- $625- $624. $649. To- tal. Provisional 52 Professional 2 16 6 28 Pennanent 16 Normal certificate or diploma 3 1 1 10 Total 47 2 32 24 106 y 1 COUNTY 2. Provisional 36 10 3 30 1 49 Professional 6 19 5 30 ..... 1 ..... 1 3S Permanent 21 Normal certificate or diploma 3 36 8 10 1 Total 36 1 1 1 ! 116 i 1 COUNTY 3. Provisional 30 2 12 5 20 9 10 7 6 32 1 2 5 4 12 1 3 4 1 9 1 3 2 2 8 1 "2 1 4 62 Professional 2 1 3 40 Permanent 1 1 2 21 Normal certificate or diploma 6 31 22 30 2 12 Total 145 COUNTY 4. Provisional 1 2 10 4 2 10 8 1 3 . 9 i. 32 50 2 '.""3' 5 35 Professional * ■ • ■ 7 7 2 2 1 5 1 2 17 Permanent 1 15 Normal certificate or diploma 1 2 13 31 6 7 67 1 2 10 Total 5 10 3 1 134 Teachers from one-teacher rural schools with higher certificates migrate to schools of two and more than two teachers in townships, and to borough elementary schools to get increased salaries, causing vacancies in the rural schools which must be filled by county superintendents issuing temporary provisional certificates to a constantly changing corps of new inexperienced teachers. There are, of course, some rural school districts which provide for a longer school term or fix their salary schedule so that they can attract teachers with better academic and professional training; but these, as the facts indicate, are very much in the minority. It might be in order to note here that in the questionnaire sent out to the teachers, they were asked to state the salary that they had received the previous year, as well as BAT.AKIBS. n the praaent aabuy. In tabulating these results it appeared that, wlieneirer salaiies wete increased^ it was generally dne to the minim nm -salary law which went into effect in 1918, and the amount of increase was nsoally the minimum $5 or 110 per month increase required by law, depending on the type ci certificate held. BASES ON WHICH SCHOOL BOARDS RAISE SALARIES. The lactocB and conditionB which are taken into account by school boards as bases in determining increases in salary, according to the replies given by the teachers in the questionnaires, are listed in Table 49. Upcm tabulating these different answers and omitting ^^no basis,*' fourth on the list, it is found that there are 57 different bases named. Table 49. — Bases on which school hoards increase salaries as given by the teachers — Total distributionj followed by 8 typical counties. Bases for increaaed salaries. Total 18 ties. Typteal comities. 1 2 61 5 3 '""i' 1 2 1 1 3 2 3 8 2 4 26 10 8 1 5 24 2 4 1 6 7 13 1 ...... 8 If rmmiun salMT law 3S7 86 91 43 iO 30 29 25 19 18 14 13 12 8 7 1 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 ^ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 40 6 """"i" ...... ...... 68 21 21 3 17 Hffictencv' ..,. -.... ExDerioiice - - 5 NoMsis 1 Certificate I^iOfislature (when State raises it) 1 ...... 6 1 ...... 13 3 3 4 2 2 8 1 8 3 • • • 11 Do not know - 2 Rxnprfpneo and certificate 3 WmnconimlkK) , ,..^,~^,^ -- 2 Effidoncv and certificate Praf^isional training ...... 11 K friwtrkmnftand fifAcienCT. r..^r-r--r- 2 1 Rftlftrios ftfft not raised. .-,..-, I K riAr Ttumtli .«.....•.*•••••.••.••--•*-••••-- 5 Amraintof work done . ............. -....• 5 Phftncrp of school 5 Education • ...... ...... 5 fltAtp AnnronriAtioTl ...«.t«*^ » 1 2 ...... 1 1 ■ 1 Hi A mst of lirinc-H^othine 1 1 1 $1 per month each year after fifth Protest of teacAiers. 4, 2 ' 1 Searc^tv of teachers. A S2S AVArv two vB&rs ••••..•.. 1 Afftar 2 vmm S5 n^r uonth ....... ...^.-r. -- 1 1 2 Fimt trMu* ftXDftrlenoe. later law ....... - ..-■,-- 1 T,iinit 1 1iIima>MH* Af mintla .. _ 1 125 a vear imtfl |65 1 War Mais 2 1 1 2 Y^tflv 2 A Ymnliitp nflcossit v. ...•.•.•.....••••••..•-...- A ftflr two years ............... 1 2 2 1 After visitme five schools 1 Af tpr 2 vears f 10 Dor montli Alter 9 years S85 year until TnaxImniB ExDerlenoe (one ca^e favoritism) 1 1 1 To nrovent tearhers Winj? to towns ...... Whim oC directors (by their own ideas) IRecaiLse T earned it 1 1 ****** 1 . . ... . 1 EanaHsatkin nlaalan^Ki 1 ...... ...... 1 SdTWatl4>n 4>n'f ecvpflriefiM) 1 1 If satisfiKtOTY after first year 1 *■>>•■ 1 Monev in treasurv ' 1 Num oer of nuplls and ability 1 Personal persuasion 1 ficate - 1 1 State legislature and taxation 1 Toseeure and retain food tf^ochers 1 1 Three times in 10 years 1 Wben a teadMr len is needed . 1 TeCalmimber cf reifies. 913 53 76 33 61 66 163 26 67 72 STATUS OF EURAL TEACHEK IN PENNSYLVANIA. Since the teachers were asked in the (juestionnaires not to name the district in which they taught, there is no way of telling the number of school boards that are represented in the 913 replies. However, since approximately two-thirds of the teachers in the one-teacher schools in the townships of the 18 counties answered, and since they undoubtedly came from all sections of the counties, we are probably safe in assuming that a large proportion of the school districts of each of the 18 counties is represented. Inasmuch as the average mumber of township school districts for these counties is 27, it would seem safe to estimate on two-thirds this number or 18, thus giving replies representative of the practice of 224 different school boards throughout the 18 counties. The data in this table show that 36 per cent of the replies gave as a basis the "mini- mum salary law, " and that approximately 10 per cent additional replies include such as "legislature, " "certificate, " "when State raises it, '* etc., making a total of 46 per cent of the replies which refer directly or indirectly to the minimum salary law. Analyzing further the factors and conditions that school boards consider in increasing salaries, one is surprised to find that "eflSciency" and "experience," factors which would naturally be expected to receive more frequent consideration, were each named in only 10 per cent of the replies. A number of the bases were given in com- bination, such as "experience and certificate," "State legislature and taxation," "experience and efficiency, " etc. As a separation of these combinations into their constituent parts would be merely a matter of opinion, it may be well to consider them jointly as listed. Those who may look for unique replies in data of this kind find them in such ex- pressions as "personal persuasion, " "when a teacher less is needed, " "|1 per month N^ each year after the fifth, " "one case favoritism, " "whim of directors, " "after visiting five schools, " etc. It is of unusual interest to observe that "professional training" was named only 13 times, "education" 6 times, and the "high cost of living" 4 times. The latter fact is most unusual since the high cost of living has been one of the strongest arguments presented to school boards for increasing salaries. Approximately 5 per cent of the teachers reported that their boards have no oasis for increasing salaries, and 3 per cent admit frajikly they "do not know. " It should also [be remembered that only 65 per cent of all the teachers who filled out the questionnaire answered the question which called for this information. Might this not indicate that a large proportion of teachers have no knowledge of the kind of con- sideration their school boards give the question of salaries, one of the most important factors in their social, economic, and professional welfare? It is not the purpose to offer these data on increasing salaries as necessarily conclusive evidence; but the material may be of importance from the standpoint of the many different kinds of reasons given, and from the fact that it helps to substantiate the previous conclusions concerning minimum salaries. The discussion of this table thus far has been based on the distribution of the total number of replies as found in the first column of Table 50. CJolumns 1, 2, 3, etc., just following the total column, show the distribution of replies in typical counties. It will be observed that there is about the same number of diversified answers in each of these counties, and that the percentages of the more numerous replies are practically the same. There are, of course, some differences, but it is difficult to speak of these in any conclusive way because of the imequal niunber and proportion of replies in the separate counties. SALARY OF MEN AND WOMEN TEACHERS. Tables 50 and 51 show the salaries paid to men and women teachers, respectively. Of the total number reporting, 1,369 teachers, 1,070, or 80 per cent, were women; and 209, or 20 per cent, men, which is practically the same proportion as is found to exist in the 20 counties of the State (Ch. II)." The median salary for men teachers is $406, which is just $6 higher than that lor women, namely $400, showing that the average salaries paid men and women teachers u See page 8. 73 IB the one-teacher rund Bchools cm the baais of these replies is practicsUy the same. "nLis is further emphasized by the tact that both in the caee ol the men and woneD teai^heTB, thn ran^ in Varies oxtcnds trmn 9315 to 9700. Howfiver, the quttrtile d«vistioD of the HalarieH re<:-cived by women teachers is S5S, which is twice the qtiartile deviation of the galariee received by the men, indicating a much greater variation and a wider" distribution nbont the miii-point of the aalarieH paid women f^tchcrB as com- pared with thoeo paid to men t«achera. Let ua now look at these tables from the point of .view of the relationship existing between the esperience of men and women teachers and their respective salaries. Table 50. — Relalion nfytart oftxperitntt ofmtn teaehen to lalants. V«nl«7. 0 1 ! i • • ' • [ H, 1 ...j... '17" JS- M- M-33- M t ^ ID w «, ., ,1,, ' 1 \i "3 ■M 3 .1 i 3 3 1 «*-«»: ;::::::i ^ * i " e 3 "n ... i 3 W-E* 1| ... J ! ' ... ' -J 1 ' «t " TO n It 20 7 -1" " '1 8 '* T ■ ' n at experience, 7; median nlarr, MM- T4BL e51.- -Rdatioao/year o/txprrience o/vor teachert (0 idiama. Yean of eipwlenco. To- aataiy. 0 j 2 ■ < ' • 7 8 2 ... 10 " It 17 a) » K4-I7- 30- 33- 3^ 3» ^ ta ■m-Mvi i li If i I [i i If 1 *I»-*M ^1 -jj-i ■ -1 'I ' 2 * ..! 'S 4 "s "2 "1 .. 1 1;... ' 3i... ' MC ^T, —.—'—,— ~ .., " S3 1 hH '1 21 XI 23 Hedlanyeanioreiperieiice, 3.3;iiMdlaDulaty,Maa- r-.ao F.E.-±.ai26. RELATION OF SALARY TO YEAB8 OF EXPERIENCE. Among the group o( 113 men teachers in Table 50 receiving a salary in the c!«bb interval 9400-(424, the median step, it is evident that their experience ranges from 0 to 50 or more yeais. The median number of years of experience of this group is 16; the quartile deviation is 8,5 years, showing that there is an unusually wide varia> 74 STATUS OF BURAL TEAGHEB IN PENNSYLVANIA. tion in experience. Since the salaries of 52 teachers are found in the step |300-$326, it is apparent that they are holding provisional certificates, which by process of the law insure them a minimum salary of $315, and account for their experience-limit of 3 or less years (with the exception of 5 teacheni, as shown in the table) since the State law stipulates that provisional certificates can be renewed yearly by examination for a period of only 5 years. The teachers in this group having more than 6 years* ex- perience probably held provisional certificates before the above provision of the recently passed Pennsylvania school code became effective." The median years of experience of the entire group of men teachers as shown in Table 50 is 7. It will be noticed that practically all the teachers receive a salary less than $425 and have had less than 7 years' experience. In other words, only 30 teachers or approximately one- tenth of the teachers, are included in the group receiving more than $425 salary and having seven or more years of experience, lliis means that in the case of 110 men teachers, or 37 per cent of the group who receive a salary in the median step $400-$424 or less, experience — at least beyond the seventh year — is not a factor in determining the increase in salary. It will be seen by inspection that there is little positive correlation in this group beyond the median salary and the median years of experience. The coefficient of correlation was foimd to be r=.20 (Pearson's Product-Moment Method). The replies of 1,070 women teachers, as shown in Table 51, indicate that the largest number, 263 teachers, receive a salary of $315. With the exception of five teachers, all of this number report five or fewer years of experience, with 135, or approximately 50 per cent, new teachers without experience. Half of the entire number of women teachers, 535, receive a salary less than $400, and have also had less than 3.2 years of experience. These teachers, like the men teachers, show the greatest range of ex- perience of 0 to 50 years for the class interval in which the median salary is found, namely, $400-$424. By drawing a line through the median years of experience, 3.2, and the median salary, $400, nearly 400 of the total group will be included in the small quadrant from $315 to $400 salary and from 0 to 3 years of experience. Just as the same amount of salary is paid to a group of teachers having a wide range in years of experience, so it can be seen at a glance that there is an equal diversity in the salaries paid to those having had the same amount of experience. While there is a positive correlation between years of experience and salary of .20 in the case of the men teachers and .20 in that of the women teachers (Pearson's Product-Moment Method), it is evident from the tables that these relationships are probably due to the grouping of salaries and years of experience about the median points, respectively. It is also apparent that experience seems to center about 2 and 4 years,- while salaries group themselves about $385 and $420. The certificate laws in Pennsylvania undoubtedly have a great bearing on this posi- tive relationship in the lower part of the range, since it will be recalled from the previous chapter that 2 and 4 years of experience are required by law of appli- cants for professional and permanent certificates, and also that $10 and $15 monthly minimum salary increases above the minimum salary for provisional certificates are required by the same law for each successive type of certificate." Of course the working out of the minimum salary law in itself would in a sense automatically cause this positive relationship. The data seem to establish the conclusion that there is less positive relationship than might be expected in ascending the scale of experience and salary, and that the falling off is most marked above the various medians indicating very little relation- ship between higher salaries and longer years of experience. ^* P&. Sch. Laws, and app., 1919, Art. XIII, sec. 1302. u Pennsylvania School Laws, 1917, Art. XII, sec 12ia 8ALABIE8. 75 NUMBEB OF INCREASEB IN 8ALABY AS BEUkTED TO YEABS OF EX- PERIENCE. Since it has been ahown that the factor of years of experience in general does not determine the amount of increase in salaries, let us now examine Table 52 to see what relation, if any, exists between the number of increases and years of experience. While over 600, or one-half the number of the 1 ,018 teachers submitting this informsi- tion, have a median experience of 6.4 years, they had their salaries increased only three times. In other words, the average number of years of experience is slightly more than twice the average number of increases in salary for the same group of teach- ers. At firet glance one would think this to be quite a good median relationship, but after studying the table more carefully, it is evident that there is probably very little correlation beyond 12 years of experience and 5 increases in salary. A large propor- tion of teachers receiving 3 and 4 increases, respectively, have been teaching mor- than 12 years. Table 52. — Relation between number of increases in salary and years of experience. Years of exx)erience. Number of bicroascs in salary. Total. 0 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 0 10 1 3a 36 10 10 4 4 ...... 1 62 113 49 21 16 11 96 157 87 86 62 2 8 21 35 24 30 20 10 10 16 1 7 16 17 15 16 0 9 8 4 11 5 8 3 1 7 6 4 4 1 3 2 6 4 5 4 10 5 7 9 2 8 4 4 9 2 3 1 3 1 3 1 2 1 1 4 3 3 1 3 . J 5 ...... ...... V... ............. >-•••••■•• 7 * 63 43 30 8 Q ..I v.... 10 2 3 2 1 2 5 8 3 6 2 2 3 2 1 2 1 3 1 1 4 2 2 5 3 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 29 33 17 30 16 24 22 9 27 13 12 17 13 6 5 6 5 8 4 12 5 16 17 13 8 6 14 3 a 11 ; 1 12 , ; \""-"\ 13 Ill 14 - ^ ^ _ 15 .. ( 16 2 17 2 1 18 1 19 20 2 a. 3 1 21 22 A ] 23 1 1 1 1 1 ■"'2 3 2 2 4 2 ...... 3 1 24 1 25 26 2 1 •••••■ 27 28 20 1 1 30-31 5 2 5 1 1 ...... J 3 » 82-33 I 34-35 1 ' 1 1 86-37 ...... 3»-39 , 1 2 * ""{' 40-44 ! 1 2 46-49 1 1 50 and above !. . 1 1 1 * V Total 101 288 213 109 120 74 31 16 6 t V A«tf\ 1 JI,U1V r-.50 P. E.-±.016. The important fact to be conveyed by this table is that the range in years of ex-, perience for teachers who have had no increase in salary is from 1 to 9; for those who have had 2 increases in salary, from 2 to 40; and for those who have had 3 increases the range is from 3 to 60 or more years of experience, with a median of 9.5 years. The data seem to show rather conclusively that teachers, at least beyond the median yeara of experience, 6.4 years, in many cases have not had the number of increases in salary determined by the yeare of experience. There is a positive correlation for the group as a whole, which can be indicated by r=.50 P. £. = ±.016 (Pearson's Product- Moment Method). 76 STATUS OF EUKAL TEAOHEB IN PENNSYLVANIA. AGE OF MEN AND WOMEN TEAOHERS AS BELATED TO SALARY. Tables 53 and 54 show the salaries paid to men and women teachers on the basis of their ages. It xvill be seen that in Table 53 a lai^e majority of the men teacheis are 25 or less years of age. Beyond this age there seems to be practically no positive relationship between ages and amount of salary received. This can be illustrated best by studying the group of teachers recei\ing the salary of the median step, $400- 1424, in which the distribution of ages extends all the way from 19 to 69 years. Since the median age of men teachers reporting is 27.3 years, it is especially interesting that the ages of the middle 50 per cent of this group of 118 teachers range from 28 to 45 years. In looking over the table more carefully, it is noteworthy that only 33 teachers beyond the age of 25, or approximately one-tenth of the group, receive more than $420. Table 53. — Relation of age of men teachen to salary. Ages. 1300- $324 $325- $349 $350- $374 $375- $399 $400- $424 $425- $449 $450- $474 $475- $499 $500- $624 $525- $549 $5S(V- $574 $625- $640 $700 Total. 18 13 19 13 11 5 2 1 ...... 1 3 3 4 3 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 ...... 17 19 ...... 3 2 5 5 6 4 5 1 4 2 1 2 1 2 ""6* 1 4 7 4 24 20 1 1 ""2 ""2 26 21 1 2 3 2 1 1 22 22 20 23 1 24 ■""i* 1 25 26 27 1 1 28 7 2 5 3 3 4 4 1 4 4 1 4 3 2 6 4 2 8 1 5 2 ::::::!:::::: 29 1 1 30 1 1 ...... 1 31 , - 1 32 1 83 34 1 1 1 35 1 36 3 1 1 1 37 1 1 38 1 88 ««•••• 1 1 1 3 40 41 1 1 42 1 2 43 44 1 45 1 I 46 1 ■"•***i"~"~~' 47 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 48 49 60 2 1 2 7 5 2 4 1 2 1 65 2 1 60 2 1 3 •••••. 65 and above. •••«•• Total . . 65 3 29 61 118 14 11 25 4 2 1 1 1 335 r-.41. P. E.-±.0312. SAL.ABIB8. 77 Tabus 54. — IMaian of age of women teachers to salary. Ages. laoo- 8834 S326- S340 S350- 1374 1375- $399 5 17 12 30 13 20 12 12 5 8 6 8 3 2 1 ..... 2 1 $400- $424 3 5 11 14 12 5 12 8 1 6 8 4 6 8 6 2 5 4 5 $426- $440 6 19 • 15 12 10 9 5 3 $450- $474 1 6 6 13 3 6 1 1 $476- $499 2 12 1$ 7 12 12 3 3 1 6 2 4 4 4 2 1 2 1 3" $600- $SM $S26- $640 $580- $574 $676- $509 $600- $625- $624 $649 $650- $609 $700 To- tal. 18 78 80 78 29 15 8 5 "■"2' 2 1 2 2 1 1 29 26 18 15 13 9 3 5 3 3 2 1 1 124 19 2 . • 166 20 1 164 a 1 1 123 22 2 1 5 . 1 '"2 "l 3 1 1 4 3 1 2 2 1 1 1 ..... 1 87 23 75 24 2 1 ■'2 1 1 1 52 25 40 26 2 5 16 27 5 1 1 1 1 80 28 1 I 2 3 1 1 1 22 29 ..... ""i* 1 1 1 1 2 ..... 1 1 3 2 2 1 25 80 1 22 81 3 2 1 1 25 82 16 83 2 7 84 0 86 1 1 1 9 86 1 12 87 ' 1 1 1 4 38 1 4 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 "i" 13 89 4 40 1 1 1 "'i' 1 2 9 41 3 42 1 1 1 1 1 4 ..... 2 1 1 2 1 ] 1 1 1 8 45 1 7 46 1 3 48 1 4 49 1 2 SO 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 >«■•■■ 1 10 55 1 1 1 6 ■Oandabcyvfr 1 22 1 3 307 , ] Total... 11 136 164 143 100 49 115 22 1 16 8 13 2 1 3 1,112 r-.42. P. E.-±.016. In the case of the women teacheis, one can easily see by inspection of Table 54 that there is a poaitiye correlation existing between ages and salaries. It is rather Burpiising too, that as many as 500 women teachers are represented in the quadrant bounded by the medians 22 years in age and $400 in salary. The laigest range in salary, $315 to $700, is found at the age of 27, and at least 80 per cent of the entire group of women teachers range in age from 18 to 27 years. The same condition holds true in this group as in the case of the men teachers, in that the range of ages is largest in the median salary step. However, we can not help but observe the long range in ages in the case of practically each salary paid, which can be well illustrated in the first class interval, $800-4324, in which the largest proportion of the entire group receiving the smallest salary, range in ages from 18 to 32 years. Probably the outstanding fact in the data just presented is the scattering of cases both in respect to salary and age. While there is a definite positive relationship evident in the case of both men and women teachers between the age 22, or possibly 25 years, and a salary of $420 or less, on the other hand, there is practically an entire lack of positive relationship between ages and salaries in ascending the scales beyond these points. The relationships expressed in figures of correlation are r».41 for men teachers and ra.42 for women teachers (Pearson's Product-Movement Method). In other words for the entire group of men teachers and women teachers there is only a slight tendency for older teadiera to receive the higher salaries. 73438*»— 22 6 78 STATUS OF RURAL, TSAOHEB IN PENNSYLVANIA. YEARS OF BDUOATION AS BBLAllSD TO SALARY. In Table 65 the teachens are listed accordiiig to the number of years of education \i^ich they have had beyond the elementary schools, comprising the work done in high schools, normal schools, and colleges. In comparing the distribution in educa- tioa ranging from 0 to 8 years with salaries received, it is at once noticeable that there 30 practically no definite tendency shown, as evidenced by the negligible correlation re=.04. Teachers with 0 years at secondary or higher education receive salaries from $315 to $600, while those with 4 or 5 years' academic or professional training be- yond the elementary grades also receive salaries extending over the same range, with the largest number of teachers in each case receiving the minimmn salary of $315. Prom the standpoint of salaries, the group receiving $315 and the group receiving $520 have secondary training extending over the same range of 0 to 6 years. These rather strildng data further emphasize the fact that school authorities frequently faQ to recognize by adequate tangible reward the education of teachers secured either before entering service or during service. It also further helps to establish the evi- dence previously expressed that years of experience, type of certificate, and local prerogative on the part of school boards are the piredominating factors in determining salaries rather than academic or prcrfessional preparation in educational institutions. It would seem that the very low salaries paid rural teachers and the nonrecognition of standard practice in establishing salary schedules are directly or indirectly the prin- cipal causes of most of the unfavorable phases of the status of the rural teacher as brought out in this study. Tabi«k 55. — Relation between the yean of eduoatUm beyond the elementary tehcol and talanes. Salary. Tears of adncation • Total. 0 h 1 2 3 4 5 8 7 8 1800-1324 86 5 13 87 85 31 11 24 8 8 8 1 2 45 2 5 83 38 10 1! 1 4 1 1 1 38 '**3* 83 46 12 8 10 S 3 1 2 51 2 5 30 45 11 11 2 2 82 1 16 41 36 13 5 18 8 > 5 1 1 80 12 2 888 f825-|S4» . . JO 83fiO-$374 35 23 35 18 4 13 1 3 3 5 12 8 8 2 1 1 80 $875-1890 5 13 11 2 7 1 1 2 4 3 ...... 280 $400-8424 312 $425-8449 112 $450^74 44 $475-8499 2 99 $fi004524 17 Sfia5-8f40 1 30 $650-8574 18 $675-8699 1 8 $800-8624 1 1 7 $a25-$649 S650-$700 1 1 2 qMol 831 153 167 xia 2(tt 193 58 43 12 1 1,328 Median salary ^$398. Median year8-2.1. r— .04. F.E.— i:.(KL8. Chapter YIII. SUMMARY. 1. This study of the status of the rural teacher in Pennsylvania is based principally on a questionnaire distributed among the teachers in the one-teacher rural schools of 18 counties of the State. Out of the 1,450 questionnaires returned, 1,110, or 76.5 per cent, were answered by women; and 340, or 23.5 per cent, by men, averaging 62 per cent of the teachers enrolled in the one-teacher schools in each county respectively. Pennsylvania, with 10,038 one-teacher schools, ranks third among all the States of the United States, being outnumbered by Illinois and Iowa. Over 53 per cent of the teachers under county superintendents' supervision are teaching in one and two teacher schools, of which 42 i)er cent are in the one-teacher schools. The number of one-teacher schools varies throughout the 66 counties from 22 to 361, with the median county having 150. These counties range in size from 130 to 1,200 square miles, but the number of square miles to each one-teacher school ranges from 2.4 to 17.8 square miles. 2. In analyzing the social and economic status of the rural teacher it has been found that the percentage of men teachers, 24 per cent as compared with 76 per cent of women teachers, is greater in Pennsylvania than in any State of the Union for which there are data available, and greater than in the United States as a whole. The average age of beginning teachers is 19.2, but the ages of teachers range from 18 to 65, with an average of 22 years for women teachers, and of 26.7 for men teachers. Eighty-one per cent of the rural teachers are bom and reared in the country districts and 19 per cent in boroughs and cities. One-half of the teachers participate on Saturday and Sunday in the social life of the community in which they are teaching. Sixty per cent of the teachers pay for board and room amounts ranging from less than $50 to more than $250, with an average cost of $121 per year. On a monthly basis the average cost is $16, with the lowest amount $6 and the highest $30 or more per month. Only 9 per cent of the teachers are obliged to meet these living expenses for the entire calendar year. These facts substantiate the prevalent belief that living expenses for rural teachers are on a much lower scale than those of urban teachers. Twenty-five per cent of the teachers, of whom most are men, receive an income of $200 or less, in addition to their teaching salary. It is rather surprising that approx- imately 40 per cent of the teachers have saved on an average approximately $100 per year from their meager salaries. Among this thrifty group are included the small percentage who carry life insurance and are members of beneficial associations, ex- pending as dues from $5 . 20 to $150 per year. Practically all in this group subscribe for educational magazines and reference books in amounts from $0.50 to $50 per year. 3. Investigation of the worhing conditions of rural teachers shows that their schools range in size from 3 to 68 pupils, with an average of 26. The number of grades varies from 2 to 10, with the median falling among the group having 7 grades; however, 41 .8 per cent of the schools are organized as eight-grade schools. The median number of class recitations is 25.6, varying from 9 to 50 per day ; and 25 per cent of the teachers have school programs of 30 or more recitations per day. The data clearly indicate an extremely low correlation between the number of class recitations per day and 79 80 STATUS OF RURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. the number of pupils enrolled, showing that a great proportion of the smaller schook are among the group having the larger number of daily recitations. Only 31 per cent of the schbels have libraries containing from 10. to 400 volumes, but 43 per cent of the rural teachers have access to libraries apart from the school li- brary, for obtaining books and materials to aid them in their teaching. Since teachers in Pennsylvania are obliged to attend county institutes, it is quite surprising that 72 per cent voluntarily attend regularly the county local institute intended to help train teachers in service. Furthermore, as stated previously, teachers subscribe generally for educational and other current magazines of the type listed in Table 18 of the con- text. The hct that rural teachen are supervised only from 15 minutes to 8 houn per school year and that the superintendent makes on an average one visit each year of from 30 minutes to one hour shows plainly that one of Pennsylvania's greatest needs is such a complete revision of the system of rural school supervision as shall involve much greater supervisory assistsjice. It should be recalled that county superintend- ents have no assistance in their work unless they have 200 or more teachers under their juzLsdiction. In the counties that have assistant county supmntendenta, the average time spent by them in visiting each school, in addition to that spent by the county superintendent, is 2 hours per year. According to the statement of 60 per cent of the teachers, one or more school directorB have visited their schools at least once during the year. Upon the impression gained from this visit frequently depends the electian or reelection of a teacher, since, according to the replies of 70 per cent of the teachers, little or no consideration is given by the directors to the judgment of county or assistant county superintendenlB. There seems to be very little community cooperation in the rural distdcts, as evi- denced by the fact that only 28 per cent of the teachers reported the existence oi parent-teacher organizations or any other type ci comnninity activity in connection with their schocJo. Since, in addition to this, very few patrons or residents of tho various school communities take any interest in the schools, it would seem that a vital need in the rehabilitation of the rural achools is the development of an increased support and of a more sympathetic interest not only in the personal weUaxe of tho teachers on. the part of patrons and citizens, but alao in the teacher's professLonal status and opportunities for growth on the part of administrative and supervisory officers. 4. In summarizing the (uadtmie and profemomd ttainittg ci rural teachers, Pennsyl- vania has a very low standing in comparison with other States. Eighty per cent of the teachers received their elementary education in township schools in periods of 5 to 12 years, and the remaining 20 per cent in boroughs irom 5 to 11 yeazs^ the average length being 68.2 months and 70.& months, re^>ectively, on the basis of the average length of school year for townships and boroughs. Thirty-nine per cent of the samo group of teachers had had no training in a secondary school; and of the 61 per cent who attended secondary schools, only 22 per cent completed a four-years' course. It should be stated that some of the teachers who had never attended a reccgnized secondary school had received some academic instruction in high-school subjects given in the ninth and tenth grades in one-teacher elementary schools. As to the professional training of this group of teachers, 76 per cent had no normal school training, and ol the remaining 24 per cent attending a normal school for periods ranging from 6 weeks to 4 years in length, only 18 per cent completed the coursei. The extreme variations in preliminary training, evidenced irom the fact that 55 per eent of the normal school graduates had not had secondary training, as well as the varied amount oi time actually spent by teachers in {Mreparation in normal schools^ are laigely due to the normal school system, which for a number of years received students with all types of training from the completion of an elementary school course to that of a standard four years' secondary course. •^t SUMMARY. 81 . As regards further training during service, 62 per cent have had no academic or professional schooling since entering the profession. Of the 38 per cent who had such supplementary education 10 per cent attended summer private academies, 8 per cent summer local or county normal schools, 12 per cent summer State normal schQoIs, and 6 per cent summer colleges, all ranging from one to four terms of six weeks' duration. Tl^e determining factor in the selection of an institution was found to be the type of certificate held and the institution most accessible. Since only 13 counties have State normal schools within their boundaries, and since the 53 remaining counties must depend in a large measure upon private academies and summer county or local normal schools to provide opportunities for teacher train- ing, it is evident that one of the pressing problems before the State is the provision for properly oiganized training facilities in high schools, in county training schools, or in additional State normal schools, if the supply of educationally and professionally trained teachers shall in any way meet the demand in the rural districts. 5. Regarding the certification of rural teachers in Pennsylvania, there is un- doubtedly need for more exacting certification laws, as well as for the establishment of a larger number of accredited teacher training institutions. In 1919-20, on the basis of a study of the directories of 28 counties, including all the teachers, the per- centage of the various types of certificates held by teachers in one-teacher schools is as follows: Provisional 52, professional 24, permanent 10, and normal school 14, with such extreme variations among counties as 19 to 73 per cent in the case of provisional certificates; 2 to 40 per cent, professional certificates; 1.9 to 36 per cent permanent certificates; and 0.5 per cent (1 out of 179 teachers) to 68 per cent (147 out of 216 teach- ers) normal school certificates. The data further emphasized the fact that 76 per cent of the teachers hold provisional and professional certificates, obtained through exami- nations given exclusively by the 66 county superintendents of the State. In the two and more than two-teacher schools, 25 per cent of the teachers hold normal- school certificates, and 32 per cent provisional certificates, in contrast with the 14 per cent and 52 per cent, respectively, in the one-teacher schools in the same counties. This inequitable distribution of the qualifications of teachers, as evidenced by certifi- cates, is still further emphasized in the fact that 58 per cent in the borough elementary schools of the same counties are normal-school graduates, while only 6 per cent of the teachers hold the provisional — the lowest type of certificate. Examination of the certificate situation of five typical coimties over a period of three years, 1917-1919, showed a tendency toward marked increase in the number of pro- visional certificates and a consequent decrease in the number of normal-school cer- tificates, in spite of the fact that the county showing the largest decrease in normal- school graduates had a normal school located within its boundaries. The median experience of the teachers on the basis of their certificates is for pro- visional certificates 0.9 year, for normal-school certificates 4.5, for professional cer- tificates 4.9, and for permanent certificates 15.9 years. From the standpoint of age, the average for teachers holding provisional certificates is 20.3 years, professional, 24.8 years, normal school, 23.9 years, and permanent, 37.3 years. In considering the certificates of the teachers on the basis of their academic and professional tr^dning, the li^rgest proportion of those holding permanent and normal- school certificates or diplomas have had no training in secondary schools. Of the number completing a four-years' course in a secondary school, the largest proportion hold provisional certificates and only 6 per cent have obtained permanent or life cer- tificates. 6. The experience of teachers in the one-teacher rural schools averages 3.7 years, ranging from the ''beginner" to the one having had 55 years of teaching service. The average experience for men teachers is 7 years, and for women teachers 3.2 years. The investigation also showed that the average number of places taught by the entire group is 3, and that 24 per cent taught in from 5 to 20 different schools. The correla- 82 STATUS OF RURAL rBACHBB IN PENNSYLVANIA. fion between the ntnnber of prices taaght and the years of experience was feond to be very high, namely r=.79. The fiicts concerning the stability of the teadting- force for the entire State over a three-yearperiod indicate that in the 10,000 one-teacher schools, 4,100 would have three different teachers, 4,400 one teacher for two years and one teacher for one year, and only 1,500 one teacher over the entire three-year period, inns nniisnslly fai^ pro- portion of instability of the teadiing corps should receive the serious and immediate attention of the educational leaders of the State. In examining the teachers' directories of 18 counties of the State for 191^20, 30 per cent of the 2,640 teachers in one-teacher schools are ' ^beginners/' and 37 per cent of the teachers, while experienced, are now teaching in a new position, making a total of 67 per cent of the one-teacher schools of these counties witii either an experi- enced teacher in a new position or a new teacher without any teaching experience. On the other hand, in the two-teacher schools of the same counties, only 12 per cent are new teaches without any experience and 33 per cent are experienced teachers in a new position. This again demonstrates the tremendous handicap of the one-teacher schoote as compared with the other types of schools under county supervisiott. On the basis of the facts in this study and of others referred to in this monograph, the schools of Pennsylvania win require each year to meet their needs between 5,000 and 6,000 new teacheis. From the fact that normal-school principals tell us that on an average only 15 per cent of their graduating classes enter one-teacher rural schools, it is evident that, on the basis of 2,000 State normal-Bchool graduates, there are only approximately 300 trained teachers available to fill the 3,000 vacancies in one-teacher schools. Surely it ia most imperative that additional training facilities as well as a full capacity of the State normal schools now in existence must be pro- vided, or the vacancies throughout the State will necessarily have to be filled with an inadequate and poorly trained teaching force. 7. According to the data for the year 1918-19, the. salaries of the teachers in one- teacher schools averaged $411, while those of teachers in two and more than two- teacher schools averaged $519. This difference of $109 in salary between the one teacher and two and more than two-teacher schools frequently occurs in the same township under the same board of education, thus specifically indicating the great inequalities in the educational conditions and in teacher standards existing in these types of schools. The median salary of borough teachers in the same counties is $588, which is $69 higher than the median salary, $519, paid to teachers in the two and more than two teacher schools, and $177 higher than the median salary, $411, paid to the teacher in the one-teacher schools.- This salary situation explains at leaat in a large measure the instability of the teaching force among the smaller villages and rural districts. The length of school term, always a determining factor in explaining teacheis' salaries, was found to average in townships 7.6 months, and in boroughs, 8.6 months^ The minimum school term of 7 months required by law exists in 58 per cent of the townships, and in only 11 per cent of the boroughs. The significance of these data is that the teachers in the one-teacher schools receive on an average $14 per school month less than the teachers in the two and more than two-teacher schools in the same townships with the same length of school term, and frequently controlled by the same board of education. It would seem that these facts furnish a strong argu- ment in favor of some scheme for equalizing educational standards. This might be brought about by an equitable salary measure for the rural teachers in the one-teacher Bchools, such as the ''bonus'' scheme as recognized in the Wisconsin salary law and to some degree in the Woodruff salary bill for Pennsylvania, or by some radical change in the form of unit of administration, such as a county -local unit with more centralized control over local units, or a county unit with a small county board of education. In 75 per cent of the cases school boards pay teachers the minimimi salary required by SUMMABT. ' 88 law and do not seem to recognize the academic or professional training of teachers either before entering service or while in service. In increasing salaries their main consideration is apparently such mandatory legislation as the kind of certificate held and the minimum salary law. In only 10 per cent of the cases was it reported that school boards considered such lacton m experience sad efficiency in placing teachers and determining salary schedules. The correlation between yeara of experience and salarMB of aieii and women teachers was found to be very low: namely, rs.20 and r».20, reepectiTely, indicating that teachem receiving, for example, a salary of $490 migkt have from no ezperiezice to 6# years of experience and at the same time teachers with two or three yeais of experience received salaries from |S1& to $70(^. Tile fairly low covrelation of the number of increases in salary to the number of years of experience ofleiB further proof that experience is practically an insigmficant factor. These findings are a recai»tuhitioit or a summary of ibc ootstandiiig facta con- cerning the different phasee of the status of the rural teachem. It shook! be kept is mind that it was not primarily the purpose of this survey to offer remedial or con- sCruclive measures in the solution of the problems revealed by the znveeligatioii but rather to make such observations and suggestionfl as the evidence safely warrants. It win, however, serve its purpose if the hciss and conclusions set forth, and the netfiodiB used in establishing their reliaUltty, wiO help constructively to solve one of tfte greatest problemff in the &eM of American edttcation — the prvbUm tf the rural school. LIST OP REFERENCES. Administration and support of the Colorado school system. U. S. Bureau of Educa- tion. Bulletin, 1917, no. 6. pp. 74, 76. An educational study of Alabama. U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1919, no. 41. p. 349. Annual reports and teachers' directories. Issued by county superintendents of Pennsylvania, 1918-19, 1919-20. Alexander, Carter. County training schools of Wisconsin. Seventh annual school- men's week. Proceedings, p. 93. University of Pennsylvania. Arp, J. B. Rural education and the consolidated school. New York, World Book Co., 1918. Bagley, W. C. The Smith-Towner bill and the preparation of rural teachers. School and Hcvne Education, 38: 158, April, 1919. Becht, J. Greorge. A study of school consolidation and transportation. Sixth annual schoolmen's week. Proceedings^ p. 197. University of Pennsylvania. Bctts, G. H. Rural school consolidation and transportation. Sixth annual school- men's week. Proceedings, p. 192. University of Pennsylvania. Bock, Thomas A. Consolidation and transportation in Pennsylvania. Sixth annual schoolmen's week. Proceedings, pp. 200-307. University of Pennsylvania. Bonner, H. R. Statistics of State school systems, 1917-18. U. S. Bureau of Educa- tion. Bulletin, 1920, no. 11. p. 42. Bumham, Ernest. The preparation of rural teachers. Fifth annual schoolmen's week. Proceedings, pp. 169-185. University of Pennsylvania. The training of teachers for the rural schools of Pennsylvania. Fourth annual schoolmen's week. Proceedings, pp. 150-167. University of Pennsyl- vania. Carney, Mabel. Should rural teachers be prepared in high schools? Seventh annual schoolmen's week. Proceedings, pp. 99-110. University of Pennsylvania. Twenty-third annual report of the inspector of State high schools for Min- nesota (1916), pp. 17-19. Department of Education, St. Paul. High school board rules. Bulletin 45, May, 1916. pp. 24-30. Department of Education, St. Paul. Country life and the country school. Rowe, Peterson & Co. Coffman, L. D. The social comxxisition of the teaching population. Teachers College, Columbia University, 1911. (Series No. 41.) Committee report. A constructive program for the improvement of rural schools, in Pennsylvania. Fifth annual schoolmen's week. Proceedings, pp. 167-169. University of Pennsylvania. Cook, Katherine M. and Monahan, A. C. Report of an inquiry into the admimstra* tion and support of the Colorado school system. U. S. Bureau of Education. In their Bulletin, 1917, no. 5. pp. 74, 76. Cubberly, Ellwood P. Rural life and education. New York, Macmillan Co. Eggleston and Bruere. The work of the rural school. New York, Harper & Bros. Engelhardt, F. The teaching profession in the State of New York. In Annual report of the Assistant ConmiiBsioner of Education of New York State, 1918-19. Evenden, E. S. Teachers' salaries and salary schedules in the United States, 191^19. The National Education Association, 1919. Commission series no. 6. 84 BBFBREKCES. 86 V^BI^tt^ H. W. The rural adiool system of Minnesota. U. S. Bureau of Bdneation, BuUetin, 1915, no. 20, p. 43. — — The eificiency and preparation el rural school teadiars. TJ. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1914, ao. 49. ■ The rural teacher and his work. New York, Macmillan Co. Rural teacher preparation in county training schools and high schools. U. S. Bureau of Educatxm. Bulletin, 1917, no. 31. Geographical ga:&etteer. New York, Rand-McNally Co. Arbcdd, P. M. Needed revision of the normal school course of study. Proceedings of principals of the Pennsylvania State normal schools, 1917. p. 24. Harris- horg, Pa. Larson, W. E. The Wisconsin county training schoc^ for teachers in rural schools. U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1916, no. 17. Laws of Wisconsin relating to common 8chools-~county training schools, 1915. Sec. 411. Mirick, G. A. Supervision of rural schools. Fifth annual schoolmen's week. Pro- ceedings, pp. 188^191. University of Pennsylvania. Monahan, A. C. The status of rural education in the United States. U. S. Bureau of Education. Biilletin, 1913, No. 8. and Cook, K. M. Survey of Wyoming. U. S. Bmreau of Education. Bulletin, 1916, no. 29. p. 52. Pennsylvania. County superintendents. Annual reports and teachers' directories, 1918-19, 1919-20. Pennsylvania. State Department of Public Instruction. Course of study for ele- mentary schools of Pennsylvania, 1918. Harrisbuig, Pa., 1918. pp. 8, 9. Ma- terial by C. D. Koch and others. Eleventh annual report of high school inspectors, July, 1918. Har- risbuig, Pa., 1918. p. 14. Pennsylvania State normal school catalogues. (Series of years.) Philips, Geoige M. Annual report for normal schools for 1918. Pittei^er, B. F. Rural teacher-training departments in Minnesota high schools. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis (1914). Bulletin. Problems involved in the consolidation and State-aid to transx)ortation acts in 1919. T. A. Bock; J. W. Sweeney; L. J. Russell; E. M. Rapp; F. E. Shambaugh; L. L. Driver. Seventh annual schoolmen's week. Proceedings, pp. 57-78, University of Pennsylvania. Proceedings of State normal school principals. (Series of y^ars.) Report of the superintendent of public instruction for Pennsylvania, 1918. pp. 372- 601, 608-611, 633. Report on rural education. Committee of the Pennsylvania Educational Associa- tion. Part IV. pp. 37-47. Harrisburg, December, 1914. Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1916-1918. Volume 3, p. 76. Rugg, H. O. Statistical methods applied to education. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co. School laws for Pennsylvania, 1917. Art. XII, Sec. 1210. School laws and api>endix for Pennsylvania, 1919. Art. IV, sec. 408; Art. XI, sec. 1126; Art. XII, sec. 1210, Part 4; Art. XIII, sec. 1301-1324. Showalter, N. D. A handbook for rural school officers. New York, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1920. Smull's legislative handbook for Pennsylvania, 1918. p. 389. Harrisbuig, Pa. Study of teacher shortage. Department of PubUc Instruction of Pennsylvania, 1919-20. (Unpublished.) 86 STATUS OF EURAL TEACHER IN PENNSYLVANIA. SympoBLiim. The superviedon of rural schools. The twelfth yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part II. The educational system of South Dakota. U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1918, no. 31. pp. 114, 210, 211, 213, 231. The rural teacher of Nebraska. U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1919, no. 20. pp. 21, 23, 31, 40, 53. Thorndike, E. L. Mental and social measurements. Teachers College, Columbia University. Updegraff , Harlan. Teachens certificates issued und^ general State law and regula- tions. U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1911, no. 18. p. 96. Virginia public school survey. Report to the State Educational Commission, 1919. pp. 135-136, 142, 333, 337. INDEX. ▲cad«mio and professiaiial training, 39-OT. See alto Gertifieatiflo. Age, ^12; salaries in relation to, 76-77. Beginning age, 11-12. BlbliogFaphy, 84^86. Board and lodging, 14-15. Bom and reared in open ooontry, 13. Borough elementary schools, oerttflcates, 43-48; salaries, M-66. Certification, 38-62; academic preparation and professloiial trahiing'as related to, 48-49; and age of teachers, 47-48; from standpoint of supplementary training during awloe, 49-fi2; relation to experience, 40-47; salaries in relation to, 08. Community interest and supi>ort, 27-28. Counties, certification, 43-45. Dependents, 10. Educational magarineR, amounts expended for, 17. Elementary, number under county superrision, 0-7. Elementary education, professional training of teachers, 2fMn. Experience, salaries in relation to, 73-75. Experience and tenure, 53-50. Grades, distribution, one-teacher schools, 10. Income, apart from salary, 10. Insurance and beneficial associations, 17. libraries, schools, 21-22. literature, profeesional, amounts expended, 17. Married or single, 13-14. Parent-teachers' organiiations, 27-28. Parents or relatives, number living with, 13. Professional literature, 23-24. ProCessianal training, 29-37. See alto Certification. Pupils, number in one-teacher schools, 18-19. Questionnaire, 2-4. Recitations, daily, number, 19-21. Salaries, 00-78. Savings, 10. School boards, bases on which salaries of teaches are increased, 71-72; schools visited, 30-S7. School term, determining factor in salaries, 00-08. Secondary education, professional training of teachers, 30-33. Social and economic status, 8-12. Spending week ends where teaching, 15-10. Supervision, county and assistant county superintendents, 24-20. Teachers' certificates. See Certification. Teachers' institutes, 22-23. Teaching force, stability, 54-57. Tenure, 53-50. Women, distribution by number and per cent, one-teacher schools, S-10; salaries, 72-78. Working egnditiops, 13-28. 87 1 *1 « .1 Harvard Unlversit Library of the Graduate of Education DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION - BULLETIN. 1921. No. 35 THE WORK OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION FOR THE NATIVES OF ALASKA [ Adranoe sheets from Biennial Sunrey of Edncatioo ' in the United Sutes, I9l&-t920] WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFHCE 1921 ADDITIONAL COPIES or THIS PUBUCATIOir MAT BB PBOCUBED FBOM THB SUTBBINTENDEMT OV DOCUICXMTS GOVXBinCBMT PBDiTINa OfflCB WASHXNGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V THE WORK OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION FOR THE NATIVES OF ALASKA. CONTBNTS. — Extent of territory — Supenrision — Control of expenditures — ^Nature of the work — Colony building — Sale of native commodities — Recent epidemics — Transporta- tion— Census of Alaska — Reindeer service. The work of the Bureau of Education for the natives of Alaska includes the Alaska school service, the Alaska medical service, and the Alaska reindeer service, with a field force in Alaska, in 1920, of 6 superintendents, 133 teachers, 9 physicians, and 13 nurses. The work is of vast extent, and it is carried on under peculiar difficulties. If Alaska werei superimposed on the United States, its northernmost cape would be on the boundary between the United States and Canada, its southeastemmost extremity would touch the Atlantic coast at the State of Georgia, the Aleutian Islands would skirt the Mexican border, and the westernmost of its islands would lie in California. The 67 villages in which the bureau's work is located would fall in 21 different States. Some of the villages on remote islands or beside the frozen ocean are brought into touch with the outside world only once or twice a year, when visited by a United States Coast Guard steamer on its annual cruise or by the supply vessel sent by the Bureau of Educa- tion. Many of the settlements have no regular mail service and can communicate with each other and with the outside world only by occasional passing boats in summer and sleds in winter. During eight months of the year all of the villages in Alaska, with the excep- tion of those on the southern coast, are reached only by trails over . the snow-covered land or frozen rivers. SUPERVISION. The regulations governing the work of the Bureau of Education in Alaska permit the greatest freedom of action on the part of the local employees that is consistent with the ultimate responsibility of the Commissioner of Education. The entire work is under the direction of Mr. W. T. Lopp, super- intendent of education of natives of Alaska, whose headquarters are in Seattle, which is more readily accessible to all. parts of Alaska than is any point within the Territory itself. The Seattle office of 70128''— 21 3 4 BIENNIAL, SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1920. the Alaska diyision also functions as a purchasing and disbursing office for the service. The Territory has been divided into six school districts, each under the immediate supervision and direction of a district superintendent. One of these supervision districts contains fully 100,000 square mUes. In visiting the widely separated schools a district superintendent must travel vast distances by sled over the frozen, trackless wilder- ness; frequently he must risk his life on treacherous, tempestuous waters in a native canoe or small power boat; he must endure the violence of the northern storms, the rigors of the Arctic winter, and the foulness of the native huts in which he must often find shelter. CONTROL OF EXPENDITURES. At the beginning of each fiscal year the Commissioner of Educa- tion distributes to the purchasing agent in Seattle and to the super- intendents, from the appropriation made by Congress for the support of the work, definite sums for the purchase of supplies, furniture, equipment, and fuel; for the payment of rental; for furnishing medical relief to the natives; for the relief of destitute natives, and for the payment of traveling expenses. In like manner, from the authorizations received by them from the Commissioner of Educa- tion, the superintendents distribute to the teachers, physicians, and nurses in their districts " subauthorizations " to enable them promptly to make expenditures for local needs. Except in grave emergency, no expenditure is permissible unless it is covered by an authorization or by a subauthorization; By this method of distribut- ing funds each superintendent and teacher is enabled to meet, within the limit of expenditure authorized, every need of the service as it arises. The effectiveness and scope of the work are limited only by the amounts of the appropriations made by Congress. NATURE OF THE WORK. The work is carried on for the benefit of adults as well as for children. In the Alaskan native community the school is the center of all activity — social, industrial, and civic. Each schoolhouse is a social center for the accomplishment of practical ends. Many of the buUdings contain, in addition to the recitation room, an industrial room, kitchen, quarters for the teacher, and a laundry and baths for the use of the native community. The schoolroom is available for public meetings for the discussion of the affairs of the village or, occasionally, for social purposes. In the schoolroom the endeavor is made to impart to the children such instruction as will enable them to live comfortably and to deal intelligently with those with whom they come in contact ; instruction in carpentry, house building, cook- BDUCATION OF THE NATIVES OF ALASKA. 6 ing, and sewing is emphasized. In some sections the natives have been taught to raise vegetables, which provide a healthful addition to their iisual diet of fish, meat, or canned goods. In the villages the teachers and nurses endeavor to establish proper sanitary conditions by inspecting the houses, by insisting upon proper disposal of garbage, and by giving instruction in sanitary methods of living. Natives are encouraged to replace their primitive huts by neat, well-ventilated houses. Cooperative enterprises, financed by native capital and conducted by the natives themselves, are fos- tered. In many instances the school is the only elevating power in the native community. Tuberculosis, pneumonia, rheumatism, and venereal diseases pre- vail to an alarming extent in many of the- native villages. In its endeavor to safeguard the health of the natives of Alaska, the Bureau of Education maintains hospitals in five important centers of native population, employs physicians and nurses who devote themselves to medical and sanitary work among the natives in their respective districts, and provides medical supplies and textbooks to the teachers to enable them to treat minor ailments and intelligently to supervise hygienic measures. There are extensive regions in which the services of a physician are not obtainable. Accordingly, it often becomes the duty of a teacher to render first aid to the injured or to care for a patient through the course of a serious illness. • To be " teacher " in the narrow schoolroom sense is the least of the duties of a teacher in the Alaska school service; he is the friend, adviser, and inspirer of the natives in their struggle toward civili- zation. COLONY BUILDING. For the protection of the natives and in order more effectively and economically to reach a larger number of natives than it could in the small, scattered villages, the Bureau of Education has secured the reservation by Executive order of carefully selected tracts in various parts of Alaska to which natives can be attracted and within which they can obtain a plentiful supply of fish and game and con- duct their own commercial and industrial enterprises. Residence within these reservations is not compulsory ; natives settling on the reservations are in no way hampered in their coming and going, nor is their status in any way changed by residence thereon. The object, is to make these reservations so attractive from an economic and social point of view that natives will voluntarily come into them. Within the reservations it is possible to maintain better equipped and more efficient schools than can be provided for smaller villages, and to supervise, cooperative stores and industrial enterprises main- tained by the natives themselves. The settlements at Hydaburg, 70133-31 3 6 BIENNIAL SUBVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1920. Noorvik, and Metlakatla are conspicuous successes in colony building. HydcLburg. — ^The locations of many of the native villages in south- ern Alaska were selected in ancient times when intertribal strife made strategic sites desirable. Several of these villages are not advantageously situated with regard to hunting and fishing grounds or for trading purposes. For these reasons there existed among the members of the Hydah tribe in the villages of Klinquan and Howkan a desire to migrate. Taking cognizance of this desire, representa- tives of the Bureau of Education selected as a site for a new village for the Hydahs a tract on an uninhabited bay on the shore of Prince of Wales Island, with abundant timber, fresh water, and game, and accessible to centers of trade. By Executive order a tract of approximately 12 square miles was reserved for the use of this colony and such of the natives of Alaska as might settle within the limits of the reservation. In a fleet of canoes the people of Klinquan and Howkan migrated to the new site during September, 1911, taking with them their household goods and movable property. Under the leadership of the teacher, a clearing was made in the primeval forest ; the school- house was the first building erected; neat log cabins followed, the Bureau of Education aiding in equipping the sawmill to provide lumber for the new village, to which the natives gave the name Hydaburg. Under the guidance of the Bureau of Education during the fol- lowing years the Hydaburg people, only a generation removed from savagery, have turned the dense forest into a thriving, well laid out, electrically lighted, self-governing town, with several miles of planked streets, a modern dock and fioat landing, a sawmill, a cannery building, church, cooperative store, shingle mill, and lumber yard. The Hydaburg Trading Co. was organized in November, 1911, to transact the mercantile business of the settlement and to operate the sawmill. When the books were audited 12 months later, $4,020 had been subscribed in stock. On June 30^ 1920, the capital stock of the company was $40,000; merchandise inventoried at $20,000. The sales of lumber from February 1 to June 80, 1920, amounted to $6,000. The company owns a store building worth $10,000, a saw- mill valued at $9,500, a cannery building and dock at $6,000, a moving-picture outfit^ an automobile truck, and equipment for electric lighting. In 1911 the par value of a share in the Hydaburg Trading Co. was $10. In 1920 the total accumulation on each^ share, including the stock dividend and the purchase dividend each year, amounted to $244.28. This success is in large measure due to the fact that, through the teacher, the Bureau of Education exercises rigid supervision over EDUCATIOlSr OF THE NATIVES OF ALASKA. 7 the transactions and accounts of the company. An accountant from the Seattle office of the Alaska division of the Bureau of Education makes the annual audit. Noorvik. — With their advancement in civilization the Eskimos living at Deering, on the bleak coast of the Arctic Ocean, craved a new home. Lack of timber compelled them to live in the semiunder- ground hovels of their ancestors, while the killing off of game animals made it increasingly difficult to obtain food. An uninhabited tract on the bank of the Kobuk River, 15 miles square, abounding in game, fish, and timber, was reserved by Executive order for these Eskimos, and thither they migrated in the summer of 1915. On this tract, within the Arctic Circle, the colonists, imder the leadership of the teachers, have built a village, which they have called Noorvik, with well laid-out streets, neat single- family houses, gardens, a mer- cantile company, a sawmill, an electric-light plant, and a radio sta- tion, which keeps them in touch with tlie outside world. The MetlaJeatla Colony. — In 1857 William Duncan, of Yorkshire, England, was sent by the Church Missionary Society, of London, as lay missionary to the Indians near Fort Simpson, British Columbia. In course of time Mr. Duncan raised this tribe from barbarism and founded for them a prosperous village, named Metlakatla, with church, store, sawmill, and cannery. Disagreements with the Church of England on religious matters and with the Canadian Government on the ownership of land caused the natives under Mr. Duncan's guidance to consider migrating to Alaska. During the winter of 1886-87 Mr. Duncan visited Washington and conferred with the President, members of the Cabinet, and other prominent men in re- gard to the proposed migration. Encouraged by the interest shown by the t)fficial8 in Washington, almost the entire colony of about 900 migrated in August, 1887, to Annette Island, where they built a new Metlakatla. In 1891 Congress reserved Annette Island, in southern Alaska, for the Metlakatlans and such Alaskan natives as might join them. In 1891 Mr. Duncan organized the Metlakatla Industrial Co. to carry on the industries of the colony. In 1905 Mr. Duncan repaid to the natives and to the philanthropists the money invested by them, with interest; the company was dissolved, and Mr. Duncan remained in sole control. The operations of the cannery and sawmill were curtailed, and in 1913 they were closed. Lacking employment in Metlakatla many natives left the island, and the colony dete- riorated. The cogency of petitions for the establishment of a United States public schdol in Metlakatla, and personal investigation of the situation by the governor of Alaska and by the Commissioner of 8 BIENNIAL SUEVBY OF EDUCATION, 1918-19«). Education, resulted in 1913 in the establishment by the Bureau of Education of a school in Metlakatla. The resuscitation of the indus- tries followed. In 1917 the Secretary of the Interior, on behalf of the Metlakat- lans, entered into a five-year lease with the Annette Island Packing Co., of Seattle, granting fish-trap privileges within the reserved waters adjacent to Annette Island, and permission to erect and oper- ate a caimery within the reserve. The returns to the Metlakatlans for fish royalties, trap fees, labor, and for lumber purchased from the local sawmill amounted in 1919 to $90,032.88. It is expected that in 1921 the revenues from the lease will enable the Secretary of the Interior to take over for the Metlakatlans the property of the lessee within the reserve. The Metlakatla Commercial Co., organized by the Bureau of Education, conducts the mercantile business of the settlement and operates the sawmiU. Under regulations issued by the Secretary of the Interior, the local government of the colony is vested in a council of 12, elected annually. The religious affairs are under 12 elders, selected by the people. SALE OF NATIVE COMMODITIES. Formerly it was possible for the Eskimos on the shores of Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean and in other remote regions of Alaska to dispose of their valuable furs, ivory, and whalebone only to the local traders, with the result that the natives usually received low prices for their commodities, and were constantly in debt to the local trad- ers. Availing themselves of the parcel-post service and of the in- creased opportunities to send freight, many Eskimos who have been educated in the schools now forward packages of fox, lynx, and mink skins, and ivory and whalebone to the office of the Alaska division in Seattle, which, through the Seattle Fur Sales Agency, sells the furs at public auction, in accordance with the rules governing such sales, with the result that many natives are now receiving full value for their goods. The proceeds of all sales are sent to the individual natives, applied to the settlement of their accounts with the Seattle merchants, or placed to their credit in savings banks, as requested; and detailed account is kept of all transactions. The vessel which makes the annual delivery of supplies to settlements along the Arctic coast of Alaska carries many tons of food supplies, packages of clothing, household goods, and building materials, purchased with the proceeds of the sale of furs and other commodities sent out by the natives during the previous summer. All transactions in connec- tion with these sales, purchases, and shipments were originally car- ried on under the general oversight of the chief of the Alaska division of the Bureau of Education, acting as a private individual. This EDUCATION OF THE NATIVES OF ALASKA. 9 philanthropic action, inaugurated as an emergency measure, has received official sanction by the Department of the Interior and has been made part of the official duties of the chief of the Alaska divi- sion, who is under bond for the faithful performance of the same. RECENT EPIDEMICS. In October, 1918, following the line of steamship transportation from Seattle, influenza broke out in the coast towns of Alaska and rapidly spread to the interior settlements. Furnishing medical relief to the native races of Alaska is a duty of the Bureau of Education, but in the great emergency created by the epidemic the bureau could not, by itself, effectively cope with the situation. Gov. Eiggs, there- fore, as executive head of the Territory, accepted the responsibility of directing the fight against the disease and took immediate, ener- getic, and effective action to check its ravages among the native races of Alaska, as well as among the white people. The Surgeon General of the Public Health Service authorized Gov. Biggs to employ physicians and nurses and to purchase medicines. As a sufficient number of doctors and nurses could not be had in Alaska, 19 physicians and 3 nurses were secured in the State of Wash- ington and sent to southern Alaska on the naval collier Brutvs. All of the bureau's physicians, nurses, superintendents, and teachers were placed at the governor's disposal and rendered zealous service in fighting the epidemic in the native villages. White people through- out the Territory cooperated heartily. The assistance of the Red Cross was also secured. The epidemic was especially severe in the Nome and St. Michael regions, where it resulted in the death of at least 850 natives. Among the victims of the epidemic were Mr. Walter C. Shields, who for many years had been superintendent of the work of the bureau in northwestern Alsaka; Dr. Frank W. Lamb, physician in charge of the bureau's hospital at Akiak; and Mrs. Harriet T. Hansome, as- sistant teacher at Hydaburg. In May, 1919, influenza made its appearance among the Eskimos in the Bristol Bay region and among the Aleuts at Unalaska. As in the previous epidemic, vigorous measures were at once taken to com- bat the disease, the Navy Department sending the UnSga^ the Beaar^ the Vickshurg^ and the Marhlehead^ with physicians and nurses, to the stricken districts. In the Bristol Bay region the epidemic caused 440 deaths and in the village of Unalaska 45 deaths. As the result of these epidemics about 250 children were left orphans. In the Nome region it was found possible to distribute the orphans among Eskimo families, but in the Bristol Bay and Cook Inlet districts it was neces- sary for the bureau to assume their entire care in orphanages which were erected at Kanakanak and Tyonek. 10 BIENNIAL SUBVBY OF EDUCATION, 1918-1920. TRANSPORTATION. The 67 villages in Alaska in which the wo];k of the Bureau of Education is carried on are scattered along thousands of miles of coast line and on the great rivers. Very many villages are not on the routes of commercial vessels. Some of the settlements can be brought into touch with the outside world only during the short season of open navigation in midsummer. The securing of trans- portation from Seattle to their remote destinations of teachers, phy- sicians, and nurses, and of the supplies and building matierials required in the Alaska school service, the Alaska medical service, and the Alaska reindeer service is an undertaking of great difficulty. The problem was acute during the summer of 1919, transportation to and in Alaska being in a chaotic condition as the result of war conditions and because vessels carrying freight for western and northern Alaska had left Seattle before the passage of the appropria- tion for the support of the work of the Bureau of Education in Alaska. Even on the established routes rates were excessive and steamers were unable to maintain their time schedules; there were long delays of passengers and freight at transfer points ; in several instances expensive emergency transportation of employees and supplies had to be secured. For a long series of years the Coast Guard Service, through its vessels cruising in Alaskan waters, has willingly cooperated with the Bureau of Education, but its vessels are not adapted to the carrying of passengers and freight and they have numerous other duties to perform. Experience has shown that the work of the Bureau of Education in Alaska can never be administered effectively and economically until the bureau owns and controls its own vessel. Bequest was therefore made to the Navy Department for a vessel suitable for use by the Bureau of Education in connection with its work in Alaska. Complying with the request, the Navy Department transferred to the Department of the Interior the U. S. S. Boxer^ a stanch, wooden vessel, with a carrying capacity of about 450 tons, and admirably adapted for the purpose contemplated. The endeavor to secure a congressional appropriation to meet the expenses of refitting the Boxer for service in Alaskan waters did not meet with success. The vessel is held at the Naval Training Station, Newport, B. I., pending the securing of an appropriation. CENSUS OF ALASKA. The vast extent of the Territory, the remoteness of many of the settlements, and lack of transportation facilities make the taking of the census of Alaska a matter of great difficulty. At the request of the Bureau of the Census, Mr. W. T. Lopp, superintendent of EDUCATl03Sr OF THE NATIVES OF ALASKA. 11 education of natives of Alaska, was placed in charge of the entire work of the Alaska census of 1920, with the bureau's superintendents, physicians, and teachers in all parts of the Territory as special agents and enumerators. This cooperative arrangement, while greatly in- creasing the duties of the bureau's employees during the year, proved to be mutually economical and advantageous. REINDEER SERVICE. The greatest work for the natives inhabiting the northern and western parts of Alaska has been the introduction and development of the reindeer industry. Until 1892 there were no reindeer in Alaska. The industry began in that year with the importation by the Bureau of Education and the Revenue-Cutter Service of 171 reindeer from Siberia, which were bought with funds secured by Dr. Sheldon Jackson from benevolent individuals. The importation continued until 1902; during that period 1,280 reindeer were brought over. There are now approxi- mately 180,000 reindeer in Alaska, distributed throughout the coastal regions from Point Barrow to the Alaska Peninsula. Two-thirds of these reindeer, representing a value of $3,000,000, are the property of the natives. The raising of reindeer is the form of industrial education best adapted to the Eskimos inhabiting the limitless grazing lands of arctic and subarctic Alaska, and in the early stages of the enterprise the reindeer service became an integral part of the educational q^stem of the Bureau of Education for those regions. The district super- intendents of schools are also superintendents of the reindeer service; the teachers in charge of the United States public schools in the regions affected by the reindeer industry are ex officio local superin- tendents of the reindeer herds in the vicinity of their schools. The reindeer are distributed by a system of apprenticeship, promising and ambitious young natives being selected by each local superin- tendent as apprentices for a term of four years, receiving at the end of each year the number of reindeer prescribed by the regulations governing the service. Upon the satisfactory termination of his ap- prenticediip the apprentice becomes a herder and assumes entire charge of his herd, subject to the supervision of the district and local school authorities. In accordance with the regulations, the herder must in turn employ apprentices and distribute reindeer to them, thus becoming an additional factor in the extension of the enterprise. In order to safeguard the reindeer industry for the natives, the regu- lations forbid the disposal of female reindeer to others than natives of Alaska. The object of the importation was originally to furnish a source of supply for food and clothing to the Alaskan Eskimos in the vicinity } 12 BIENNIAL. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1918-192Q. of Bering Strait, nomadic hunters and fishermen, eking out a pre* carious existence upon the rapidly disappearing game animals and fish. Within less than a generation the reindeer industry has ad- vanced through one entire stage of civilization, the Eskimos inhabit- ing the vast grazing lands from Point Barrow to the Aleutian Islands ; it has raised them from the primitive to the pastoral stage ; from nomadic hunters to civilized men, having in their herds of reindeer assured support for themselves and opportunity to accumu- late wealth. The magnitude and value of the reindeer industry have resulted in the making by Congress of an appropriation to enable the Bureau of Biological Survey, Department of Agriculture, in cooperation with the Bureau of Education, to make investigations, experiments, and demonstrations for the improvement of the reindeer industry in Alaska. The distribution of reindeer among the natives and the use of the enterprise as the form of industrial education best adapted to the races inhabiting the untimbered regions of Alaska will remain under the supervision of the Bureau of Education. In making its public schools centers of social, industrial, and civic life in the native villages of Alaska, the Bureau of Education took pioneer action in making an educational agency reach an entire community. The establishment of the Alaska reindeer service was the earliest governmental action providing, by the introduction of a new industry, practical vocational training, adapted to community needs, guaran- teeing assured support, and resulting in training a primitive race into independence and responsible citizenship. o I Harvard Universiiy, Library of the Graduate S( of Education DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN. 1921. No. 36 MAJOR PROJECTS IN "IJEMENTARY SCHOOLS FLORENCE C. FOX SPECIALS' IN EOUCATKMAL SYSTEMS BUREAU OF EDUCATION WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFOCE 1922 \ s a I ^\ Harvard university, •arv ot the Graduate SchiK)| ADDITIONAL COPIES or TBIB PUBUCATION MAT BB PBOCUBKD fBOX THB SVPKBINTSNDBIfT OF BOCTUXXNTB GOTEBNICENT TVOmSQ OTIKE WAflUlNQTONi D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY r CONTENTS. Foreword ^. — — — v Chapter I. — ^The organization of subject matter in terms of projects : The function of subject matter ''according to its relative and abso- lute educative value" 2 I. Central subjects: Science ^ 2 Geography 4 Civics 4 History 4 Literature 5 II. Modes of attention: Observation 0 Hearing language 6 Silent reading 7 III. Modes of expression : Gestures (including posing and dramatization) 8 Mtasic 9 Making (including sand-table building) . 0 Modeling 9 Painting (including painting a landscape) 9 Drawing (including blackboard drawing) 10 Speech 10 Writing 11 IV. Modes of Judgm^it: Form and number 12 Chapter II. — A series of projects in civics, history, and literature : Reorganization of work in a mill village school into a series of projects , 13 A Survey of the field 13 I. Projects in a mill village school 16 II. The Plymouth project 22 III. Building a farm on the sand table 28 IV. Building a town on the sand table 31 V. A school play as a project in history and literature 33 VI. A project in history and literature 39 VII. Making a grocery store 41 VIII. Making bread in school 42 in FOREWORD. How sball a project be organized ao that the subjects in the schooi program shall properly function and shall contribute to the efltective worldng out of the central idea around which the project must concentrate? How shall an un- trained teacher be able to formulate her subject matter in terms of projects un- less she understands the function of each subject? An attempt is made in the first chapter of this bulletin to outline the proper function of each subject " according to its relative and absolute educative value " and to indicate what the cbild*s natural reaction to this material becomes in his educative process when it is organized in terms of projects. The second chapter deals specifically with a series of projects which have been worked out in several elementary schools according to the fundamental principles laid, down in Chapter I. But one type of project is considered in this discussion, the major project, which, in educational parlance, has come to mean a unit of study around which the work of the school shall center for a given l^igth of time and shall include all the activities of the school during that period. Such a study created a de- mand for reading, writing, language, and number, and presents many opportuni- ties for the use of drawing, modeling, making, and sand-table building. It provides for contracts and cross connections between all the subjects of study and presents a vital, integral unit for the work of the school. The minor project deals with some lesser question which may grow out of the major project or which may be suggested in the assignment of the daily recitation. It is more in- dividual in character than the major project and often is little more than a related problem in a subject of study. A distinction is readily made in this connection between a project which deals with a real situation in the child's experience and the act of playing through such an experience in the schoolroom. The first is based upon the child's direct contact with some activity in his immediate environment from which he gains those impressions that are used as a basis for study and for reproduction. The play project may come to him through the medium of actual experience, but it is developed and carried on in the realm of imagination and supposition. IV MAJOR PROJECTS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS/ Chapter I. THE ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT MATTER IN TERMS OF PROJECTS. - Elementary teachers hear much to-day regarding the child's Interests and experiences as bases of their work. Just what does this mean, the child's expe- riences, and how may they become the dominating idea in elementary education? What are the child's Interests and experiences? What are they before he enters school, what are they now with his added school experience increasing day by day, and what are they destined to become as we look toward the future through the next year, and the next, and for many years to come? ' A great educator has said : The child's home is of paramount Interest to him ; he is interested in the brute life about him ; he loves the flowers ; the passing of the seasons and the changing phases of nature affect him; pebbles and stones; the forces of nature, wind and rain and heat and cold; growth of plants in garden and field — all these come within the realm of his dally observation and experi^dce. These interests and experiences have been classified in the outline given below as central subjects and Include science, geography, civics, history, nand literature. Here within these central subjects lies our opportunity for educative material upon which to base our projects. Anything less than these is un- worthy. The method of presentation is suggested by the remaining sections of the outline. Impressions are received by the child through the modes of attention : Observation, hearing language, and reading. These Impressions are reproduced by him through the modes of expression : Gesture, music, making, modeling, painting, drawing, speech, and writing. Finally these impressions are made definite and real to the child through the modes of Judgment : Form and number; their adequacy dei^ends upon his ability to visualize the elements of form and proportion in his mental picture. Organisation of subject matter. I. II. III. IV. Central subjects. Modes of attention. Modes of expres- sion. Modes of Judgment. Gesture. Muaio. Sdenoe. Making. Oeogn^hy. Observation. Modeling; Fomi. The child's relation to. . Civics. Hearing language. Painting. Number. History. Reading. Drawing. Literature. Speech. Oral reading. 1 Writing. I. The central sabjeets rapresenting the child's interests and ezperienoes. II. The modes of attention through which the child receives his impressions of the central subjects. III. The modes of expression by which the child reproduces his Impressions of the central subjects. IV. The modes of Judgment by which the chOd measures his Impressions of the central subjects. ^ Elementary schools in this bulletin refer to the first six grades. 2 MAJOR PROJECTS IK ELEBIEKTARY SCHOOLS. Here we have concentration and the unification of thought and expression. " Each subject, means, mode, and method finds its absolute and relative edu- cational value, its definite place in conditions for self-activity and self-effort.*' No teacher can wander fkr afield with a classification of this kind In her mind when she essays to organize her subject matter into units of study and to use the project method as a basis of her work. But unless she does build around a central subject, unless she knows that silent reading is a mode of attention and not a subject of study, unless she realizes that oral reading is a form of speech, a mode of expression, not a subject of study ; unless, in other words, her subject matter functions '* accord- ing to its relative and absolute educative values,** she will find her project falling about her ears like a house of cards and she will return to the beaten paths with which she is familiar and will continue to hinder the spontaneous growth* of the child by misusing and perverting the educative function of the subjects in her daily program. Here, then, is a measure by which to guage tlie educative process and upon which to build our schoolroom procedure. Great minds have contributed to this organization of subject matter — ^Herbart, Froebel, our own educational reformer, Col. Parker, and many others. It remained for CoL Parker to take the best from this system of educational philosophy and to found a school In which the theory might be tried and tested by actual schoolroom practice. For 20 years it has been successfully practiced in many schools in this coun- try: Just now it is receiving a new Impetus, and fortunate are the children who are entering school next year that recognition Is more and more being given to the greatest educational movement of our times. That It requires study and preparation on the part of the teacher and that its limits are expressed by her education, training, and a professional perspicuity there is no doubt. If we wish to carry on this great movement, we must understand the child's attitude toward the life about him and In what particular way the environm^it that surrounds him can be made to function In his education. THE FUNCTION OP SUBJECT MATTER "ACCORDING TO ITS RELA- TIVE AND ABSOLUTE EDUCATIVE VALUE "—SOURCES OF IM- PRESSION. I. Central SuBjEcm SCIENCE, GEOGRAPHY, CIVICS, HISTORY, AND LITERATURE. SCIENCE. Field ewcuriions and emperimentt, — ^The lesson In science usually takes the form of nature observations In the early grades and Is developed from the child's unconscious observation out of school. Later these lessons are baaed upon his more conscious study of nature on a field trip or from specimens brought Into school rooms for study or enjoyment All of the Interests and experiences which these contacts arouse should be considered by the teacher In her search for centers of study and for themes upon which to base her projects. Excursions In the field and experiments in the schoolroom should form a large part of the plan for these lessons. The experiment often supplements the experience gained In the field and clarifies the somewhat vague and In- OBGANIZATION OF SUBJECT MATTEB, 3 definite impressions which are apt to result from an excursion. It coordinates and conserves the experience and helps the pupil to form a definite, tangible premise upon which to build a future inference or conclusion. The value of a field excursion may be increased, in the middle grades particularly, if the class is prepared for a definite line of observation, with the teacher close at hand to direct and participate in the investigations. Some of this period, undoubtedly, should be free for the exercise of individual and group interests, perhaps wholly unrelated to the class experience, and these may develop later Into valuable material upon which to base an individual or a group project. TJie garden, — In the making of a garden there are many opportunities for lessons in sci^ice and geography. It opens a way for field lessons in which to collect specimens of soils and to conduct a series of experiments which shall determine their power to retain moisture and their capillarity, leading out to the practical questions of irrigation and dry farming. It calls for visits to different garden plots In the vicinity, on high ground and on lower levels, and for walks in the country where systems of drainage have redeemed the swampy land and prepared it for cultivation. Then there are kindred subjects related to the garden. How many and how vital they are: Bird boxes in the garden; What to do with the English sparrow ; How is this little savage of bird life responsible for the depredations of the Tussock moth? The household cat and his relation to the fruit trees in the garden ; The economic value of the American toad ; and so on through many phases of these natural phenomena* Pertinent questions, logical reasoning, enthusiastic responses, cooperation, and sympathy are some of the values of these lessons. Much more than garden making and plant study are developed. Ideals of usefulness, of thrift, and of Industry are unconsciously absorbed which shall fix irrevocably a higher standard of living. Meehamca. — In the middle grades the problems of construction begin to as- sume an interest in the child's life. Out of these interests many individual projects may be developed with the aid of materials like the Erector models, construction blocks, and Meccano parts to supplement the observations made during the field lessons. Automobile construction is close to the child's ex- perience, and how to change a tire is one of the most practical problems he can master in these days of horseless carriages. Farm machinery, the tractor, har- vester, reaper, and binder ; the building of houses, with their problems of heat- ing, lighting, plumbing, and ventilation, offer subjects of absorbing interest in mechanics, electrical api^iances, and sanitation to children in these grades. The bridge which the child crosses on his way to school, the railroad track under 4he bridge, and the engine passing and repassing at his feet stimulate him to inquiry, and research, and experimentation. Lessons on food and clothing, which include subjects Jike cotton and wool, wheat and milk, lead out into a study of the problems involved in the manu- facture of textiles, and the principals of mechanics which are utilized in the steam-roller processes in our large fiouring mills. The study of farm animals and agriculture begun in the lower grades logically follow. Milk offers a wide field of study through lessons in modem methods of dairying, the construction of silos and dairy bams, of motor chums, cream separators, and cheese presses. The sterilization of dairy utensils and the process of milk pasteurization, as lessons in chemistry, bear the closest relation to the child's health and well- being, and may be woven into our plans for projects as we look for subjects in science which hold an absorbing interest for the child. 4 MAJOR PROJECTS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. GEOGRAPHY. The child's immediate enTironment is the right material for his projects in early geography lessons. This subject goes hand in hand with science and shares with it the opportunity for study which every field trip and every excur- sion provides. Each locality possesses some Interest which offers possibilities to the teacher for organizing her project. It may be a river which opens up a wide choice of related subjects, a mountain or a plain, a product of especial value to the community as an article of commerce or of manufacture, or a landmark which holds some special significance in local history. Maps are wholly outside the question in this early work, and are, at best, but diagrams upon which to base a conception of size and shape and location. They have little to do with the real subject and often produce an erroneous impres- sion which may cling to the child through all his later life. He should leam to know his town through his contact with its life. He should be led to think of his State as he thinks of a beautiful land^bape, situated in the East or West, the North or South, with a wonderful diversity of mountain or plain, rich in natural products, watered by many rivers, abounding in fertile farms and .prosperous cities. This should be his ultimate impression, his own State merg- ing into one continuous panorama, without artificial barriers and boundaries of line and color, which, alas, he all too often remembers from the maps he sees upon the blackboard or in his textbook. CIVICS. Reports of the child's observations of his own house, its color, size, and gen- eral appearance ; of the different rooms in his house, the furniture in each, and its specific purpose offer excellent material for these units of study. The family life which surrounds the child, the different m^nbers of the family, and their relation to him are close to his interest and experience. Discussions in the schoolroom of the child's home activities, setting the table, washing and wiping the dishes, making the beds, and the best ways and the necessity for per^ forming these homely tasks will lift them above the plane of drudgery they so often occupy in the child's mind, and will afford, at the same time, a most op-' portune occasion for early lessons in civics. Later his interests extend out into the town in which he lives and his partici- pation In its life and history : The material construction, location, plan, streets, and buildings ; the personal needs, food, shelter, and clothing ; the professional contacts, the employer, the teacher, the doctor, and the preacher ; the social ex- periences, recreation and intercourse, and the ethical significance of the gov^i^ ment of the town. Finally, it leads him out into the world of foreign peoples with their typical manners and customs, and through comparisons and con- trasts in this study he forms his ultimate standards. Throughout this series of problems the civic interest and the history interest are coincident, they merge and blend, they sustain and supplement each the other. HISTORY. Back of every project in history sliould lie our ultimate purpose — ^to instill in the minds of our pupils the great principles of democracy', upon which our Re- public rests. The detailed study of manners and customs in the lives of primi- tive peoples seems to be the logical starting point for history lessons in the primary grades. Our early settlements in portions of the New World offer to f OBOANIZATION OF SUBJECT MATTEB. 5 the children a richness of material for history stories which no other record of daring and adventure can surpass. American history Is filled with material for lessons In Americanism and the principles of free goyemment. It possesses, more than most, the dramatic and picturesque background so appealing to little children. Its stories of primitive life depicted In the early chronicles hold a compelling Interest for primary pupils. Extreme contrasts afford a most artistic element In these narratives — Puritan asceticism as contrasted with Indian barbarism, the kerchief and cap with the feathered headdress and war paint ; log cabin with wigwam, and all the homely virtues Intensified in a land of wanton practices. Our heroes of exploration, the swashbuckler and priest, French commandant and emigre, fur trader and Spanish grandee, fill the pages of our history with tales of forti- tude and courage. Washington and Lincoln, a home of wealth and culture, and a home of poverty and privation, each contributing to the Nation's greatest need, one a " father " and one a " savior *' of his country — where in the annals of another county might we find a record so convincing with which to teach the principles of our democracy? We shall be emphasizing pageants, plays, and festivals during the coming years as a part of our effort to Imbue our children with the spirit of democracy. These will abound in symbolism of national ideals, with national events and national progress. We shall learn to sing our national hymns, to recite our national odes, and to salute our flag with a reverent and a contrite heart, realizing that we, as elementary-school teachers, must sow the seed of patriotism in the early years and trust to those beyond us In the work to sustain and encourage its growth. LITERATURE. Literature illustrates and beautlfles the subjects of study. It is like an accompaniment played upon an Instrument during an Interpretative recital. For the diildren it Interprets the various phases of nature and enlivens the facts of history. It should be woven into every project as a complement to the study of the central subjects, unless, indeed, it becomes Itself a unit of study. The myth is the beginning of science and history and is closely allied to the early study of those subjects. The cumulative and repetition stories in folklore are the beginning of civics and introduce these eariy lessons in human relationships through word pictures of concrete and vivid situations. The flable is the beginning of ethics and subtly paves the way for training in right conduct These stories offer the best opportunities for studies in litera- ture. They carry the child outside himself into a world of imagination and fancy. They build upon the known element in his everyday experience and idealize and enlarge those experiences. American literature abounds in choicest specimens of English comi)06ltlon which bear a message of national Import. We are unusually fortunate in our poets who have contributed larg^y to the sum of American literature for children. The modem fairy tale is not so good, and should not be used as a BQbstitute for the old dasslc story which teaches the truth in a better man- ner. Care should be taken to apply the universal truth «nbedded In the old Greek and Norse mythology to the child's presentday environment, else the Intrinsic value of a study of this literature will be lost. Tool subjects and content subjects. — ^Literature and language are so clos^y associated in the primary grades that the consideration of one involves a discussion of the other. They differ widely in their function, however, for 8»386'— 22 2 6 MAJOR PROJECTS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. language is a tool subject, a mode of expression, while literature is a con- tent subject, which in the form of story-hearing by the pupil becomes a mode of attention. The telling of a story as a unit or a single piece of literature involves the organization of the story into parts which must follow each other in logical sequen(ce, the play of the imagination over the details of the story, the clear visualization of the setting of the story, and the action which takes place, and the training of the body to respond, naturally and simply, to the emotions which the story may arouse. Later, readings in literature should be made for the gratification they afford and for the study of human life which they offer, without thought of analysis or dissertation. " Everywhere have I sought peace,'* says the blessed Thomas & Kempis, "and have found it nowhere, save in a comer with a book,*' which most aptly expresses what our ultimate use of literature should become. II. Modes of Attention. OBSERVATION, HEARING LANGUAGE, SILENT READING. OBSERVATION. Without doubt, observation plays the most important part in our acts of attention. Emphasis has already been placed on observation as a means of study in science and geography. It is the primitive, universal mode and should be cultivated in early grades to the extreme of its possibilities. Plis training in a close and accurate observation cultivates the cfaildfs visual memory, upon which depends all the mental pictures which he creates in the realm of fancy and imagination. This is the fundamental principle upon which the child's education dep^ids: His ability to form vivid mental pictures from his acts of attention and his ability to create out of these other images in the field of constructive imagination. The teacher's task is not only to present the necessary stimuli, but to train the children under her care in the cultivation of mental Imagery. The modes of expression which are given in the next few pages are important means in this training. HEARING LANGUAGE. Hearing language is a more difllcult mode of attention to master, since it deals with symbols and the child loses the direct contact he enjoys in obsers'ation. But a trained ear is quite as important as a trained eye. This is true in lan- guage training, because it is through the sounds of language that the interpret tation of meanings are secured. Many critics believe that silent reading de- l)ends upon the auditory image for its functioning. All authorities agree that the ear is the important organ to be considered in teaching little children to speak, to read, and write. ''Address the ear prindpally," Gouin exhorts the teacher of language, " afterwards take as auxiliaries the eye and hand in read- ing and writing." Huey agrees tliat ** the ear, and not the eye, is the arbiter of speech ; the mouth, not the pen, its greatest instrument" Naturally the story is the usual medium tlurough which to reach and hold the child's attention in the primary grades. Later narrative, exposition, and oral reading play a large part in the act of hearing language. Caution is needed here against the use of oral reading as an act of attention in the lower grades. Children receive very little of content through this subject at this time. Their ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT MATTER. 7 acts of attention in oral reading usually are focussed on forms and symbols, and their souls are harassed and troubled by diificulties present and unknown dangers to come. Skill in telling stories to little children should be as much a part of the teacher's equipment as a knowledge of good literature and discrimination in its selection should be. All the art of story telling which she covets for her pupils the teacher should herself possess a hundredfold. Nor does her re- sponsibility end with the telling of the story, for a very definite consideration of its movement from one point of action to another will assist the children to organize its parts into a logical, literary whole, and will train them in that priceless accomplishment — ^the ability to form vivid images from hearing word pictures. SILENT READING. Reading Is the third and last mode of attention, and silent reading becomes in later grades the almost universal one in the study of the central subjects. For that reason it should occupy a larger place in the early grades curricula than is now accorded it Upon it depends the child's power to study and read In- telligently through all his later life. It is needless to say in this connection that of all the subjects in the course of study which lose their ftmction in the hands of the average teacher the subject of reading suffers most. In nearly all schools it is taught as a subject of study through formal drills In technique. Oral reading, which is a form of speech and whose function is expression, degenerates into exercises on the pronunciation of words. Silent reading, which is a mode of attention, Is neglected in the first grades until the pupils lose their power to use it in the upper grades according to its function as a mode of attention. How to cultivate the sileni-readinff habit, — ^A reading room for pupils in elementary grades should be set aside in every elementary-school building. It should be furnished much as the children's rooms in public libraries are fur- nished. Low book shelves should line the walls, filled with books of many kinds ; books for tiny children still reading from the pictures in a book and too little yet for texts; shelves of children's classics chosen from Kipling's store- house, from Carroll, Baldwin, and Scudder, from Perrault and ^sop and from Mother Goose, and Just as many as possible of the beautiful readers which the schoolbook publishing houses are bringing out in de luxe editions. These should be arranged not more than 4 feet from the floor, within easy reach of every child in the schooL This withdrawing room would provide for the children an opportunity for silent reading which the ordinary overcrowded assembly rooms do not now afford. Until the children are able to read they will enjoy looking through the books and inspecting the pictures. No seat work was ever devised that can be compared, either in its appeal or in its educational value, to a number of good books conned over and ^oyed by a child in these grades. As an aid in train- ing the child's critical sense in good language forms it has no equaL Hoio to Btimutate interett. — ^The reading interests of a group of children may be utilized in various way& The reports in class on selections read, and ex- change of books between pupils* with discussions of the pictures, the story, and the characters, will pave the way to a later interest in library reading. Library reading, — One hour each week, at least* should be iQ)ent by the pri- mary grades in a library with their grade teacher. Picture books and reading books should be inspected by the children, questions asked and answered, and encouragement given to each child to draw out a book and take it home to read. 8 MAJOR PROJECTS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. if possible, or to hear it read by one of the family. The library habit should be cultivated early, as soon as children are interested. This may not be feasible in schools where libraries are some distance from the school building, but even a field trip on the street car or a long walk with the library building as the objective will amply repay the effort made to reach it The library atmo^here is unique and can be experienced only by personal visits. It is one of the best of the higher influences which touch the child and should be formed early to insure permanency. III. Modes of Expression. GESTURE, MUSIC, MAKING, MODELING, PAINTING, DRAWING, SPEECH, AND WRITINO. Some modes of expression are peculiarly appropriate for one subject and some for another, depending upon the type of lesson, the teacher's convenience, her class of children, and the materials she may have at hand. To visualize, to discuss and r^ate, and to reproduce is the orderly sequ&ice of reproduction in any subject; to call up the mental picture and then to describe it through the media of the various modes of expression; by oral language, graphic art, gesture, and later by written language; by whatever mode is most appropriate. To visualize is the essential, fundamental principle upon which this training rests. " I believe that the image is the great instrument of instruction," says Dewey in his Pedagogical Creed. " What a child gets out of any subject pre- sented to him is simply the images which he himself forms with regard to it." The teacher's part in this study is not to instruct but to help the child to form his image and to suggest and provide a suitable medium through which he may express that image. GESTURE (INCLUDING POSING AND DRAMATIZATION). Any form of gesture is a mode of expression and is essentially an art sub- ject. It has to do with emotion, thought, and feeling. Grace and dignity of carriage, poise and freedom from self-consciousness are some of the finer qualities which this mode of expression develops. Posing and dramatization. — ^Posing Is the mode of expression which empha- sizes motion and should precede the dramatization of a story. It is used most frequently to impersonate a character in some characteristic pose. Many chil- dren who have difficulty in acting can take the pose of a character. Diffident children will be able to take part in this simpler form of action. Dramatization emphasizes action and is used in reproducing a story or an incident in history or literature whidi has a decided dramatic quality and is characterized by action. Much of the value of this mode of expression lies in the opportunity it affords for initiative and resourcefulness. The children should be as free as possible during this period. After a leader has been selected he should be held responsible for the presentation of the play. He should assign the different parts and instruct the characters. If his efforts fall another leader should make an attempt to organize the story into dramatic form and to present it before the school. *' Hands off *' should be the teacher's slogan if she desires to cultivate initiative in her pupils. A pantomime may be organized by a group of children outside the classroom, and after presentation the class may guess the name of the story that has been dramatised. ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT MAITEE. 9 MUSIC. MubIc should receive the same treatment in the primary grades as that accorded the other modes of expression — an avoidance of technique until the children are quite proflcloit in singing the beautiful songs prepared by our beet composers of music for little children. Rote songs should accompany the lessons in science, in history, and in literature as a mode of expression. The study of symbols should be deferred until the third or fourth grades, at least. Emphasis In all grades should be placed upon music as a mode of expression rather than a subject of study. MAKINQ (INOLUDINQ aAND-TABLB BUILDING). There Is no mode of expression more valuable than that of making. It repre- sents the object more adequately than any other, because length, breadth, and thickness can be expressed by it and it reproduces the object in the same or similar material. It leads to a study of form, of size, and of proportion in all the dimenslona More important still, the children's interest is held by it indefinitely, and their enthusiasm as welL BuUdinff on the sand tahle, — ^The representation of regional projects in miniature on the sand table has many educational assets and some liabilities. This treatment is used larg^y in primary grades to make concrete the impres- sions which the children are receiving in some unit of study, like the farm, the town, or the setting of a story. It has a direct bearing on the problem of visualization and helps to clarify the mental image. But the child must be led out from his models on the sand table into a sense of reality and on into the field of constructive imagination. Unless this is done his image ceases to grow and he will forever after see the tiny models on a sand table when he wishes to recall some typical setting in a history or geography lesson. MODBLING. Clay mod^ing emphasizes form and substance and represents the object in bulk which may be expressed through the clay or plastocene medium. It also possesses an unusual value because a compelling motive lies back of the work. The content of the picture is in the child's mind when modding is used as a mode of expression and not a representation of the form only. PAINTING (INCLUDING PAINTING A LANDSCAPE). Painting emphasizes form and color and is important as a means of culti- vating the child's sense of color. Painting with water colors is a difficult mode for little children, because the wash of color must be kept within the outline of the object. If the outline is cut out before the object is painted it will not limit the stroke of the brush, and when it is finished it may be pasted on an appropriate background. PaitUing a Umdtoape. — Colored-poster eifects to Illustrate a story in history or literature may be prepared through this medium in the form of a landscape in water colors for the background oi the picture, with the painted objects pasted in their appropriate places on the picture. The wash of color for the background should be made with a sideward stroke of the brush from right to left, the upper half of the picture in blue for the sky and the lower half in an appropriate color for the diiferent seasons of the year — green for the spring and summer landscape, brown for the fall, and dull gray for the winter. Hills or level country are represented by the sky line, which is drawn in lightly with a pencil before the painting is done. Trees and other painted objects may be pasted into the picture to represent any type of landscape that is desired. 10 MAJOR PROJECTS IK ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. DRAWING (INCLUDING BLACKBOARD DRAWING). ' Outline drawing has little to recommend it as a mode of expression in the elementary schools. It requires painstaking effort on the part of the pupil and results in a hard, inflexible line which poorly represents the outline of any object. Blackboard draiaing. — Drawing on the blackboard, or ch«ilk modeling as it is usually called, emphasizes the environment or background of the child's picture and is the best medium for the early work in drawing. If the children are encouraged to draw freely from the first day of school they will have no fear of what to an untrained teacher is a difficult task. Children draw as naturally as they make a gesture and much more naturally than they talk when the reproduction of a story is involved. " I can not tell it, but I can draw it/' is often said by children who have had this training, or whose natural aptitude for drawing has be^i encouraged and developed. Chalk modeling at the board consists of long, sweeping, downward strokes with the side of the chalk for the vertical objects in a landscape, like the trunks of trees; side strokes from left to right for rolling country; and slanting strokes for hills and mountains — a type of reproduction which Is extremely simple for little children. The drawings are crude at first, but they gradually assume correctness of form and proportion under the kindly guidance of the teacher. This method also gives full play to the free arm movement so essential to good penmanship In later grades and is an invaluable training in graphic expression. Cutting. — Cutting the outline with paper and shears is a more satisfactory medium than drawing with a pencil, in early work especially. It brings the outline to the child in a tangible form, so that the eye is reenforced by the sense of touch when the outline is cut away from its background. The medium seems to be a simpler one than pencil and paper so far as the child's control is concerned. Its chief criticism lies in the fact that the child's training in this mode of expression does not carry over into his later work in art and expression. SPEECH. The project offers unlimited opportunity and material for the exercise of oral language. Every lesson in science and geography, in civics, history, and literature is approached through this mode of expression. Conversations, questions, and discussions stimulate the childr^i's interest in these subjects and provide occasion for the use of oral language. Upon this mode of expression all other modes are based. The other lan- guage subjects — ^reading, writing, spelling, and phonics — are closely connected with it, and the appropriate correlation which exists between oral language and the manual arts as modes of expression should be emphasised by the teacher as she trains her pupils in their use. Oral reading lessons, — ^Development lessons in written language and oral reading should grow out of each lesson which is given in the subjects of study. There is no better way of teaching reading than this. The teacher stands before her class, chalk in hand, near the blackboard, and as the pupils formu- late their sentences she writes them on the board, later to be typed and bound into reading books. This exercise offers opportunity for discussions of good langrnage forms, of logical sequence In events, and of clear and concise statements. Two ele- ments should be in the teacher's mind — a limited vocabulary and the need of ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT MATTEB. 11 much repetition. This step from oral language to written forms Is made without difficulty in these exercises because the sentences are of the children's authorship and are based upon their own ezperitfoces. Auditorium periods. — ^The lack of opportunity for oral language is the most noticeable defect in the elementary-school program. Individual pupils in the first grades throughout the country speak less than 100 words during a five- hour session of school, including all their responses in the recitation periods of the fundam^ital subjects. They talk on an average less than half a minute during the school day ; and this opportunity is not appreciably greater in the middle grades. It 10 one of the best signs of the times that get-together exercises are be- coming more and more a feature in the daily school program. Here Is a compelling motive for exercises in oral expression and those modes most closely related to it. Once a week at least the elementary school should come together for an hour of music and literary exercises, and for reports on civic interests and nature observations. The Francis W. Parker School in its Yearbook on Morning Exercises, sums up the valuecr of this period in its school in the following words : It is evident that the exercises grew out of the daily work of the school or out of the interests of the children in some large, absorbing outside ques- tion. The subject is sometimes science, the teUing or illustrating of nature observations; the story of some visit to the farm, the art gallery, or work- shop; history, current events; the massing of the literature and music of some special subject or special day ; the telling of stories that delight the children's hearts; or the discussion of some problem of vital significance in the conmiunity school. Therefore the exercises instead of interfering with the school work, emphasize, reinforce, and vitalize it ; give it purpose and form and furnish the best test of the children's growth and power to think and of their skill in expression. A distinct motive lies behind the use of oral language as a mode of ex- pression in the auditorium period. Artificial and unnatural attitudes toward this exercise are fostered if the child is asked to stand before the class and repeat, time after time, a story with which the class is already familiar. He is being; trained and he is conscious of it and usually resents it ; at the least it tends to make him self-conscious and robs the exercise of all spon- taneity and pleasure. WRITING. Writing, a mode of expression, — ^Writing is not a subject of study. It is a mode of expression and should be taught as such. The child should spring to the board^ under the impulse of an idea and atten^^t to express that idea in writing. It may be only an isolated word that is emphasized in the read- ing lesson, it may be a phrase or a short sentence, and the writing of it wUl be crude at first and scarcely legible, but in a few days the words shape them- selves into readable form, and the child has mastered the first step in written language. The first demand, usually, that meets the child when he enters school is to write his name on the board to mark his place, at his seat to mark his papers, ovt his material, boxes of paints and crayons, of pencils, of words and letters to be used in reading, that he may distinguish them as his own. As he becomes more proficient he labels this matoial and the furniture and ap- paratus which he uses. In scores kept in the games he plays, in street signs in his playtown, or names and prices of foods in his playstore, in numberless activities these demands grow from day to day and are the real incentive for teaching him to write, that writing may become a useful tool to assist him in his work, rather than a long deferred accomplishment gained throu^ weeks and months of formal drills In penmanship. 12 MAJOR PROJECTS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. IV. Modes of Judgment. FORM AND NUMBER. Form and color, — ^A significant feature of the Binet tests, as they are formu- lated and used in the first grade In the Detroit public schools, is the emphasis which is placed upon Judgment of form as a criterion of the diild's mental abil- ity. *' Which is the prettiest? " is asked regarding the pictures in outline draw- ing of three birds— the owl, canary, and parrot Three horses, three dogs, and three fishes are presented in the same way. " Show me another window like this, make the second picture look like this; what is lacking in this picture?" are questions in this test which are evidence of the high value placed upon the child's critical faculty In the matter of form as a measure of his intelligence. Color is so closely allied to form that one is never absent from the other. For that reason color should receive a greater emphasis than is now given it in early education. So^ many black and white prints are used to enhance the pupil's mental picture, so many descriptions are given him which are devoid of the color element, and he is so often allowed to reproduce an impression filled with color through a neutral medium, that his image must become a dull and drab affolr in our efforts to educate him. Much emphasis is purposely placed upon the color feature in the projects reported in this bulletin because of its paramount Importance as an attribute of form in the training of a child's acts of Judgment. Its esthetic value is Im- measurable. A beautiful landscape or a tiny fiower flUs the child's soul with ecstacy. Often the blend of color is all the child sees in his nature observations^ while the appreciation of graceful line comes to him later. Consciously or un- consciously the color which surrounds him has its subtle effect upon his charac- ter and should be given a large place in the teacher's plans for her projects. Number. — Number includes size and proportion as elements In the child's men- tal image, and his Judgment regarding these should be carefully trained from the earliest days of school. The use of number should be emphasized and Its relation to other subjects developed. The child should build up within his consciousness a number sense by using it as a unit of measurement. The length of inch and foot and yard should become familiar to him. He should know the size of pint and quart and gallon, and be able to roughly estimate the difference in weight be- tween pounds and ouncea His Judgment of distances, of yards and rods and miles, should be trained to approximate accuracy. He should use his hands and feet In verifying his Judgment, measuring with tape and ruler ^nd pacing off the greater distances. He should be able to read a thermometer and tell the time of day on the clock face. The days of the week, the months in a year, and the ever-changing seasons should enter into his understanding. Provision for this training in the Judgment of sise and proportion, of length and breadth, and thickness, of weight and volume, of degrees in heat and cold, of duration of time, must be made in our organization of projects If we wish the subject of number to function properly. Chapter II. A SERIES OF PROJECTS IN CIVICS, fflSTORY, AND LITERATURE. INTRODUCTION. The projects which are reported in this buUethi have been worked out In every instance with the participation of the author. They have a many-sided value for the teachers and pupils in the elementary grades. Projects of this kind have become a power in ethical training; they motivate the work of the school along the line of altruism, and unify the interests and vitalize the activi- ties within the schoolroom wherever they are used. It would be impossible in recitations of this kind to " separate the information lessons from their social bearings," and the ''acquisition of modes of skill from their relation to the social uses to which they may be put.** Something more than educational conventions should interest us as ele- mentary school teachers. Something more than the three R*s should be required of us. Accumulation of information? Yes, but closely connected with the activi- ties of life. Acquisition of the modes of skill? Yes, but with the realization of their social uses. Broader than the schoolroom and wider than the school- yard must be our platform. It must include the town and the country, the home, the shop, and the store, and all that makes up the child's environment. ' REORGANIZATION OF WORK, IN A MILL VILLAGE SCHOOL INTO A SERIES OF PROJECTS. One of the most recent studies of community life in the project! form is that re])orted from the school in a cotton-mill village in a southern State. Every grade in the school had some part in this study of home environment. Each child contributed his quota to the general fund of interest and experience whi(di formed a basis for this study and acquired proficiency in the expression of some phase of it. A Survey of the Field. The month of April in North Carolina is a season long to be remembered by a visitor from the Northern States. Especially is this true of one of the model mill villages there. The woods beyond the village are showing a profusion of coloring not found in many localities. From the faintest green of the early leaf to the darkest bough of the pine tree they stretch away before us in every shade of blue and yellow, while underneath the branches the snow-white blos- soms of the dogwood gleam through the shadows, and the purple Judas tree adds a brilliant dash of crimson to the panorama of the springtime. In the foreground of the picture lies the village. Its orderly rows of houses, in gray and brown and o(±er, flank the broad, white streets with their concrete curbstones. At one end of the principal street stands the church, and near it 80896'— 22 8 13 14 MAJOR PROJECTS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. are grouped the community store, the teachers* cottage, and the two little red brick schoolhouses, giving a pleasing contrast to the neutral Cone of the cottages. At the other end of this street stretches the long, red cotton mill, the center and motive of all the activities of this community. Here the skillful men and women and the busy boys and girls of the village work through the days and nights to keep the flying shuttles and the whirling spindles in motion. Out beyond the mill, on the edge of the woods, is the dairy, with its stalls for the cows, its milking room, cooling and bottling room, and cleansing and airing apparatus for sterilizing the utensils. Here is the dairy yard, drained and tiled, with a concrete drinking basin, a pasture sown to grass for the summer feeding, and all the latest contrivances used to safeguard the milk supply of the community. Not far away the piggery has just been constructed in the form of a hollow square with pens opening on the outside for the food supply, and on the inside to allow access to the court, which is also drained and tiled like the dairy yard and supplied with a concrete wallow in addition to its drinking basin. Nearly every family in the community Is represented in the piggery. The garbage from the table of the household is collected and fed to the family pig in the piggery, and returns after a few months in the form of pork, ham, and bacon. The outlying fields have been plowed and fertilized and cultivated, and here the community gardens will be planted, while at the rear of every bungalow a garden plot is ready for the sowing of vegetable seeds and the planting of sets from the community hothouse. Just outside the windows of the schoolroom, where the children are busy with their books, the hothouse stands, filled with boxes of sproutlug seeds, and in the yard adjoining long rows of cold frames display their beds of tiny plants all ready for transplanting to the neighboring gardens. In the basement of the school is the gardener's office, supplied with seeds of every variety and tools of every description for planting and cultivating a garden. Across the road from the school workmen are draining one of the village lots, preparing it for the school garden. A small brick catch basin with an iron grill-work cover receives the water and insures the best of drainage conditions. The land has been plowed and harrowed and made ready for the children. Garden walks, S feet wide, cross and recross this open lot and divide it into small, rectangular beds which will be apportioned to the pupils in the sdiool for their individual care and cultivation. TJie child's relation to this en/vironment. — ^Many times a day the children in this community pass and repass the gardener's office, the cold frames, and the hothouse. They see the men at work in the fields getting ready for the spring planting and nearer by the preparation for their own school garden. They visit the piggery and feed their own little pig, who puts his wiggling snout through the opening in his pen and incessantly squeals for more. They loiter by the dairy and watch the cows standing all day in the dairy yard, chewing their cuds, and waiting patiently for their feeding time. They can tell you that the small dun-colored Swiss gives 6 gallons of milk per day ; that the two deer-eyed Jerseys are a little short on milk but long on cream and butter; and that the Aldemeys are to be replaced by the Ayrshires. They carry dinners back and forth from their home^ to the mill, and many of them have already become familiar with the tasks which wUl fall to their lot when they enter into their apprenticeship there. PROJECTS IN CIVICS, HISTORY, AND LITERATURE. 15 They understand the full significance of the late war in its effect on the output of the mill. From their standpoint a war contract means shorter hours In the mill and higher wages. It means additional luxuries for all the family, hetter clothes and food and longer week-end holidays. They are already familiar with the processes involved in the making of cotton cloth. They have seen the bales of cotton coming into the mill, the cleaning, the combing, the lapping processes through which the cotton fiber passes on its way to the spinning room. They have seen their fathers and mothers^ older sisters and brothers mend- ing threads, oiling machines, turning on and off the electric power wtiich controls the work of the mill. They have spent many a holiday in the woodsy and have rejoiced, howbeit subconsciously, in all the beauty and diarm and fascination which nature holds for most of us. They watch the landscape gardener make a clearing in the woods for the dairyman's cottage. They see his men felling trees and pulling stumps in the latest and most approved method. And when the stump holes fill with water and the mosquito larvae appear they help to pour on the oil that shall exterminate this pest and insure to the people of the village a summer of peace and comfort. They have discovered that the gardener does not use the saplings in his nursery when he plants the shade trees in the superintendent's dooiyard. He brings them from the forest, fully grown, and measuring 20 feet from limb to limb, and here they rise, in a single day, giving the same profuaion of leaf and shade to this household that is enjoyed by those who have waited 20 years for trees to readi maturity. "Need of the school to consider this environment, — All these activities of the child himself and the people around him make up the sum of his existence. They are his world, his life, and his immediate interest, and should find some place in his school work. The miracle of spring takes place under his very eyes and becomes one of his most cherished experiences. Pure milk supply is a most vital subject, involving as it does the broader subjects of nutrition, sanitation, and the conserving of food. The story of cotton, its connection with the progress of the world in inventions and manufactures; its economic bearing upon the history of the world's commerce, and especially upon the social and civic life of the people of North Carolina ; its vital relation to the everyday life of the children in this mill village community — ^these interests create an. unusual opportunity for the dev^opm^it of projects, both in the course of study and in the daily recitation. The use of electricity, where it is generated, and how it is carried long distances, enabling the manufacturer to establish his factory in out-of-the-way places far removed from the power that controls the machinery, is a subject of the utmost importance to all the people connected with a cotton mill and should be amply discussed in their schoolrooms. OutUne of work. — ^As the work was finally organised, the home and its activi- ties were used as a center of interest at the beginning of the school year. The children in the two first grades began by making observations of their own ' homes and discussing with the teacher how they were built and how furnished. Then each child made a booklet, putting a picture of a house on the cover. Bach week the pupils planned the suitable furniture for a room in the house. From catalogues and magazines they cut and arranged furniture for a living 16 MAJOE PROJECTS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. room, bedro^MD, dining room, azid kitchen. A study of the family life of the home grew out of this study of the house and included man^ lessons in cMcs. Reading and language lessons were dey^oped. The sentences were formulated by the children during the reading exercise and were written on the blackboard by the teacher, later to be typed and bound into small reading books whldb con* tained eventually all the reading material which this project included. Barly drawing lessons on the blackboard trained in flexibility and control, and led up to the first lessons in penmanship. Outlines of houses and flat draw- ings of furniture afforded esculent models for this work. In language periods the activities of the home were posed and dramatized and many lessons in social etiquette were inculcated, since these children had the habit of opening front doors and of wandering at will through any house In the village. The story hour was filled with selections which have a peculiar charm for children, on account of their repetitive quality the Three Pigs and Their Houses and The House That Jack Built being especially appropriate The second grade furnished a house and dressed a set of dolls to live in it. The third grade watched the building of a house, and as the teacher photo- graphed from day to day with her camera the progress of the building the pupils made blue prints for a little brochure on house building. The fourth grade in this school made a special study of the community grocery store. They brought small samples of condiments from home and hung them in bottles on a chart, reporting from time to time on the source and manufacture of these products. The fifth grade made a study of the village with reading and language lessons bearing upon the activities of the town, the mill, the Y. M. O. A., which was its social center, the imports and ezporta 20 MAJOR PROJECTS IK ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. LaJwr. — ^Labor as a factor in the manuf^tiire of cotton in the Soath : (1) Mill worlcers — Wages, hours, living conditions, educational advantages; (2) relation of price of cotton to price of manufactured article, and to the wages paid the mill worker ; (3) high cost of living in relation to the mill worker. Civics, — ^The mill worker as a factor in the civil life of the community: (1) What he contributes; (2) relation of the employer; (3) what he exchanges for his labor; (4) what he receives for his labor. THE DAIRY PROJECT. 1. Care of the cow. — Clean milk: The milking house; washed with water from a hose before the cows are brought into be milked. (Inspect the milking house.) The cows ; brushed and combed and bags washed. (Observe milking.) The dairyman; clean hands and clothing. The milking utensils ; pails, cans, and cloth strainers must be boiled in water every time they are used. They are aired and sunned In a screened cupboard, where flies can not reach them. (Inspect utensils.) Cooling rooms; walls lined with thin strips of cork to keep out the heat Ice stored at the top and temperature kept at 38 degrees. (Observation.) Bottling the milk ; milk bottled in the cooling room. One dozen bottles filled at a time and covers put on before air or dirt can get Into the bottles. (Ob- servation of bottling and inspection of bottling room.) Food for the cow : Grass in the meadow or pasture lot in the summer time ; hay from the barn and a warm bran mash in the winter. (Inspect the dairy lot) Forage, silage, and cottonseed meal. (Observation of feeding.) Cool, fresh water to drink. (Injsq;>ect the concrete water basin.) Weaning the calf: Calf taken from its mother: Why? When? Teaching the calf to drink milk from a paiL (Observation and inspection of calf house.) II. WJiat the cow gives us. — ^Milk, cream, butter, cheese, dried beef, gelatine, leather, glue, bone buttons, hair in plaster, tallow candles, soap, fertilizer. (Detailed study of any one of these products. A collection of these products mounted on a chart in the schoolroom, made from specimens brought in by the pupils.) III. The child's ^ood.— Milk, butter, cheese. " The first food a family should buy is milk." "The last food to be dispensed with is milk." (Material for these lessons found in the bulletin on Health Education, " Diet for the Child," United States Bureau of Education.) IV. History and geography (Includes number lessons, and es)ecial study of North Carolina's status in dairy products; Texas fever tick.) — Cows of olden times ; relation to environment ; structure, covering, prehension of food defense. 2. Study of product maps from the Department of Agriculture: Where cows are raised in the United States; where creameries are built in the United States; where cheese Is made in the United States. B, The cowboy on the western plains ; driving to the round-up ; in a stampede ; the herd at night. 4. The cow*s cousins : In America, the deer and bison ; in Africa, the water buffalo ; in India and Japan, the buffalo. V. Poems, stories, songs. — The Farmyard Song ; The Cow, The Friendly Cow ; The Milkmaid, ^sop ; Mooley Cow. PROJECTS IN CrVIOS, HISTOBTy AND LITERATUBE. 2X THE PIGOERT FKOJEOT. L 0«re 0/ lika pk^.-— Hog waUows: A cooL bafh te sootbing to a pig during the hot weather ; it cleans the scruff from the skin and protects the pig from flies. A thin layer of crude petroleum oo the tc^ of Uie water will keep the pigs ftee from lice and other skin parasites. (Inspection of the pig wallow and observation of its use by the piga) Food for the pig: Not adapted to liTlnig on com alone, the pig needs a ▼ariety of f ood--«oni, alfUfa, cowpea, and soy bean« with hay, wheat shorts, bran, tankage, skim milk, etc. Pigs can be produced cheaper when pastures are used along with the grains, and in Uie South much cheaper than is possible in the com b^t Clovers and alfidfa fumiflOi better hog pastures than the nonlegumes. (Inspection of the feeding of the pigs in the piggery.) Benefit of hog gracing; improving run-down land, fiertilising it, eating the weeds which the hogs relish, especially the oommon Iambus ld chicks may be purchased and reared if setting hens are not available. Chicks should not be fed until they are 24 hours old, then hard-boiled eggs and stale bread crumbs make the best food, the latter soaked in milk. Later feeding of grain, 2 parts wheat, 2 parts pinhead oatmeal, 1 part com, 1 part rice, and 1 part millet seed ; all grains cracked before mixing. Preserving eggs: Packed the day they are laid, in water glass. Bjconmnic value of fowls and eggs : Poultry converts table scraps and kitchen waste into wholesome and nutritious food in the form of eggs and meat Each hen in her pullet year should produce 10 dozen eggs. The average size of a back-yard flock should be at least 10 hens. Thus each flock would produce in a year 100 dozen eggs, which, at 25 cents a doz^i, would be worth |25. Back-yard poultry flocks help in reducing the cost of living, and supply eggs of a quality hard to purchase. These eggs cost very little, as the fowls are fed upon waste materials. II. What the fowl gives us, — ^Food — eggs, chicken meat, feathers, featherbone. III. History and geography, — ^1. Relation to environment — structure, prehen- sion, and defehse. 2. Study of product maps ; where poultry is raised in the United States ; re- lation to amount of improved land, with special reference to North Carolina ; effect of lice and mites and^their controL 3. The hen's cousins — the pigeon and quail. * IV. Poems, stories, songs.—^he Clucking Hen ; The Story of Henny P^iny ; Feed the Flocks. IL THE PLYMOUTH PROJECT. In the reorganization of the work of the mill-village school the daily pro- gram provided for an auditorium period which was used each day of the week by groups of children representing the different grades. Division 1 formed one group and included the kindergarten, the two flrst grades and the second. Division 2 comprised the two third grades and the fourth. Division S was made up of the flf th, sixth, seventh, and eighth. The groups met at different hours of the day for their exercises and came tog^her once a week for a general auditorium period. The program for each group was similar in char- acter and the general exercise partook of the best numbers from each division throughout the week. Too much can not be said in commendation of this period. It motivated the work of the sdiool, it inspired the pupils to make their best effort to produce something which would be worthy of a place on the general program, and it welded the school together because a sympathetic understanding of the work of each grade was created by Its presentation before the entire school. The flrst half hour of the period was devoted to music, to chorus and solo singing, and to the learning of new songs. In the remaining 25 minutes the regular program was carried out It was found necessary to indicate quite definitely the topic for eadi day in order to insure versatility and con- tinuity in the exercise. On Monday a dvic program was given, with reports on the civic interests of the village. On Tuesday experiments were made PHOJECTS IK CIVIOSy HldTOttY, AKD UTERATtTBB. 23 before the pupils and actiyities preBented, sapplemented by reports of otbers which were being carried on by groups of pupils or by individuals in the dif- ferent grades. Wednesday a literary program was rendered of readingSt recitations, dramatisatlDn of stories, and posing of individual characters. On Thursday reports from papers and magazines on current events were given and items of news r^arding the life of the village were reported. An improvised auditorium was necessary because no provision had been made in the school for this activity. The village chdrch was used until cold weather drove the children into the large gymnasium of the Young Men's Christian Associaticm, where they were made welcome unless the room was being used by gymnastic classea Sometimes the use of the grade room was neoessaiy, and by sitting two in a seat doeedy crowded together the diildren carried out their progmm. Notwithstanding these handicaps the auditorium period proved a great success and a great incentive to the project wotk of the schooL While many of these were minor projects, the ^ massing of the literature and music of some special subject or special day" suggests the development of a major project through several weeks of researdi and study. Such a study is represented by the story of Plymouth given in the tableau vivant form, of which the program and pictures are given here. Bvery child in the school bore some part in the working out of this project The stage setting was arranged by the boys to represent the forest back- ground of the Plymouth picture. The costumes were planned in the classroom and made at home. All the stories that were told during the tableaux were given in the child's own words by one who had been choeen by the school to repres^it his classmates. ** Thus," reports the principal of this enterprising school community, " our program was simply the outcome of regular classroom work and represents one of our major projects." PROGRAM OF THE flTTORT OP PLTMOtJTH IN TABLEAUX VIVANT. Scene I. Landing of the Pilgrims: Beading by a girl in the seventh grade. Boys' orchestra. Scene II. The first wash day : Story by a girl in the third grade. Solo: Thanksgiving song by girls in fourth grade. Scene III. Care of the baby : Story by girl in third grade. Solo: Lullaby. Scene IV. John Alden and Prisdlla: Beading from '*The Courtship of Miles Standish." Song : The First Thanksgiving Day : Second and third grades. Scene Y. The snake skin and the bullets. Story told by boy In the fourth grade. Boys' orchestra. Scene VI. Treaty with Massasolt: Story told by boy in the sixth grade. Solo : Why Mr. €k)bbler Changed his Tune, by boy in fourth grade. Scene VII. Standish and his men find com : Story told by boy in fourth grade. Boys' orchestra. Scene VIII. Calling the Pilgrims to church : Story told by boy In the eighth grade. Scene IX. The Pilgrims going to church. Song: Thanksgiving Day: Fifth and sixth grades. Scene X. The first Thanksgiving Day: Story told by boy in sixth grade. Beading: President's Thanksgiving proclamation, read by boy in eighth grade. Song by school: America. 24 MAJOR PROJECTS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOI^. PLTMOUTH VILLAGE ON THE 8AKD TABLE AS IT APPEARED IN 1622. Tbe tbird-grade irapils in thiB school snpplemented their study of the build- ing actlTities in the vlUage by a building project on the sand table. The town of Plymouth in 1022 was chosen because of its relation to the Thanks- giving program under way in all the grades and also because the simplicity of the project insured its success, although the pupUs were without previous training in any of the mbdes of expression. Some retarded, over-age boys in the class were being h^d in school wholly through parental discipline and their whole-hearted cooperation was enlisted through their enthusiasm for this work. Recalcitrant members became eager and earnest, clumsy fingers deft and facile as they shaped with infinite care the buildings in this miniature community. Manners and customs and the characteristics of the Pilgrims and Indians were fre^y discussed during these activities in the schoolroom. Their hardships and fortitude and their mutual help and understanding, with something of the heritage bequeathed to us by this Indomitable people, made their impression upon the boys and girls in this sdiooL It is safe to say that more of the history of our early settlements was acquired during these periods than any amount of reading or study mi^t have accomplished. BXJILDINO THE TOWN OT FLTHOrTH ON THE SAND TABZJL The sand was dampened and then modeled to represent the contour of the country in and around Plymouth. The seashore stretched across the length of the table about midway between front and back, curving at the right and extending along the right end of the table to meet the right-hand comer at the back. The village hill, of which we hear so much, was modeled at the middle right and connected with a chain of hills along the right end of the table. The seashore thus formed was high and rocky at the right, but low and level at the middle front. Here lay the village, within the curve of the bay and sheltered by the hills along the shore. Over it all stood the forest, with here and there the stump of a tree which had been felled by a Pilgrim father. The village street ran along the shore from the left end to the hill at the right. Between it and the sea stood the six log cabins with Qovemor Bradford's house, which was also used as the church, across the street in the middle of the village. The Mayflower rode at anchor in the bay, and the famous rock was placed midway along the shore. Modeling the fiouses, — Seven log houses were made of twigs and clay whidi measured when finished 4 by 8 inches. A fiat, thin slab of day for the floor of the house was laid on a piece of carboard and a rectangle 4 by 8 inches was drawn on it. Twigs three-eighths of an inch in diameter were cut to measure- ment, and rolls of day the same size weie modded. The houses were built up in rectangular form over the diagram on the clay floor, first a roll of clay and then a twig, 4 inches long at the sides and 3 inches wide at the ends. These were pressed together to form the walls of the house, with spaces left for a door and window. The roof was a thin slab of clay cut in the form of a rectangle the size of the floor. It was bent slightly through the middle to form the peak of the roof and was pressed carefully into place on the top of the walls. A clay chimney was modeled and placed at the back of the house. Palisades of pointed twigs were built around each house after it was placed on the sand table. These twigs were buried in the sand one-third their length and the palisade when completed stood nearly as high as the house. The fort on the hill was made like the houses. It was square in shape, with a fiat PROJECTS IN CIVICS, HISTORY, AND UTERATURE. 25 roof and looph<^e8 around tbe sides near the roof, through which the muzzles of the guns were pointed. Modeling the figures. — Pilgrims and Indians were modeled in clay and were diessed ai^n^riately in cr^pe paper. The women's dresses and men's hats and capes were made of black cr^pe paper, and the women's caps, kerchiefs, and aprons of white cr^pe paper. The Indians were dressed in blankets of tan- colored cr^pe paper lined with red and white and brown feather headdresses, cut also of cr^pe paper. Many activities were represented by these figures, the Pilgrims busy at their tasks and the Indians hidhug behind the trees watching them. A THANKSGIVING FLAY — THE LOST FRINGE. This little play was taken from a Thanksgiving story which appeared several years ago in St. Nicholas. It has many values. It brings the atmosphere of the first Thanksgiving time clearly before the children. It depicts the manners and customs of the Pilgrims and Indians and their friendly intercourse. It affords an opportunity for every pupil in the class to take some part in the play. It was written by a class in the third grade during their language p^ods and developed unusual skill in the use of oral and written language. The picturesque costumes of the Pilgrims and Indians, the touch of romantic adven- ture which the episode develops, and the dramatic culmination of the movement make it a delightful piece of play acting. Retting of the play, — Branches of trees at the back of the stage will give the forest background needed for the three acts of the play. In the first act the gable end of a house is seen among the trees. This may be made of a light wooden fk'amework covered with paper, with door and window showing. The seashore in the second act may be represented by a stretch of blue cloth or canvas at the right of the stage. The feast occupies the foreground in the third act, two long tables, one of Indians and one of Pilgrim men, with Pilgrim women serving. THE LOST PRINCE. CHABACTKBS. Stephen Hopkins, a Puritan father, Elizabeth Hopkins, a Puritom, mother, Giles Hopkins, a little Puritan bop. Constance Hopkins, a little Puritan girl. Governor Bradford, the governor of Plutnouth. Massasoit, an Indian chief, Wamsutta, hit Utile 9on. Samoset, an Indian friend of the Puritans. Puritans and Indians. Time— Thanksgiving, 1622. ACT I. Scene I. Clearing in the forest, with Puritan house in the "background. Doop opens and Mr. and Mrs. Hopkins come out u^th bread and pies in tJieir hands. QUes and Constance foUow them to the door. All are dressed in Puritan costume. Constance is wiping Aer eyes on her apron. 26 MAJOB PROJECTS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. Mr. Hophins. Remember, children, you are to stay in the house until we oome home. Constance, Won't you please bring me some cake? Mrs. Hopkins. If you are good children, I will bring you some of Mrs. AUer- ton's pound cake. Mr. Hopkins. Tou must not leave the house. There may be Indians in the forest. Giles. The Indians will be at the feast, won't they? Mr. Hopkins. Massasoit and his men will be there, but the Narraganaetts are on the warpath. They may be hiding in the forest now. Constance^ Oh, I'm afraid, mother. . ones. Pooh ! Don't be a " fraid cat," Constance. I'll take care of you. Mr. Hopkins. Nothing can harm you if you stay within. Mrs. Hopkins. Do as father says, and ke^ indoors. Good-by. (Hies and Constance. Good-by. (FaiJier and mother disappear in the forest and children go into the house and shut the door. ) Scene II. 8a$ne. ChUdren standing at the window. Giles sees a squirrel run across the clearing in front of the house. They laugh, then open the door and come out. Constance. Where did it go? GUes. It ran this way. (Running toward the woods.) Constance. Let's catch it, and make a pet of it. Giles. I'll make a cage for it Constance. What color was it? Giles. It was gray, with a big bushy tail. Constance. (Starting toward the woods.) Oh, there it is in that tree. GUes. There it goes, see it run. Come on, I know I can catch it. (The children chase the squirrel around in front of the house, until it leads them aioay into the forest.) Scene III. The seashore. Constance kneeling and crying. Giles trying to com- fort her. GUes. Don't cry, Constance, I can find the way. Constance. That is what you always say, and we are farther away than ever. C^Ues. No, we're not, Constance; we'll find Plymouth Just around this bend. I am sure we are coming toward it Constance. Oh, why did I ever go out of the house ! Giles. It was that wicked squirrel. Maybe it was the devil tempting us. Grov- emor Bradford says he can change into anything. . Constance. He did it just to try us. Oh, what will father and mother say? GUes. Never mind, Constance, let's go on. We'll never find Plymouth sitting here and crying. Let's walk on. ( Wamsutta, a young Indian boy, comes walking toward them. He sees that Constance is crying.) Giles. Look, Constance, look. See who's coming. Constance. (Looking up, and then rising to her feet.) Oh, Giles, it's an In- dian. A little boy. Aren't you afraid of him? Giles. No, I'm not. I'm as big as he is. Wamsutta, How do» English? PROJECTS IN CIVICS, HISTORY, AND LITERATURE. 27 ones. How do yon do? (Constance hides behind her brother, Watnsutta be- gins to dance.) Constance. What's he doing now? CHles. Why, he*B dancing. It is an Indian feast dance. I*ve seen Samoeet do it lots of times. Constance. He wants to be friendly. CHles, Yes ; and I want to go home. Constance, (Beginning to cry again.) Oh, Giles, shall we ever find Ply month? Wamsutta. (Pointing and nodding toward the forest.) Plymot? Plymot? Come. Go to Plymot. Giles. Looli, Constance, he Is pointing and trying to say " Plymouth." Constance. Do yon think he knows where it is? Wamsvtta. {Walking totoard the forest aaid pointimfi.) Plymot. Go Plymot. (He leads and the children follow him^ into the forest.) ACT 11. ScBNB I. Thanksgiving Day in PlgmOEEWOBD. By one of the pupils. We haye been reading the history of the Middle Ages and have found the story of Roland and Oliver very interesting. We have writt^i a play about it called ** How Charlemagne Found Roland." The characters are Charlemagne, Emperor of France; Bertha, bis banished sister; and her son Roland; the governor of Sutri and his son Oliver, the friend of Roland; the Princesses Adelaide and Berthalde; the knights, Duke Ogier, Ganelon, Gerier, Gerien, Richard the Old, and others; the cardinal, my Lord Turpin, with pages and servants. ACT 1. Scene I. A rude hut. Bertha and Roland outside th^ door, Roland, Oh, why has my friend Oliver deserted me? Bertha, Oliver awaits the coming of the great Charlemagne. Roland, And is Charlemagne to visit our town to-day? Bertha, Yea, my son. Roland. And will Oliver see him? Bertha. Surely he will see him— is not Oliver the governor's son? Roland. Ah, then Oliver shall tell me of him. Berths, Charlemagne is a great em^ror, my son. (Enter Oliver.) Oliver. Oh, Roland, Charlemagne feasts to-day on the village green, with all his knights about him. Come with me and see him. Roland. Oh, mother, I shall see him, I shall see him. Bertha. I would that I had food to set before thee, ere thou goest out Roland, Never mind, mother, I shall find some food. Oliver, Oh, Roland, Charlemagne has a long white beard, and a crown upon his head, and his daughters, the Princesses Adelaide and Berthaide, are with him. {Exeunt Roland and Oliver,) Bertha, Charlemagne, Charlemagne, why hast thou treated me thus? Thou hast so much, while Roland and I are starving. * " This, the only complete play reprinted here, is reproduced as a delightful sample of childish play writing, and as an Instance of a teacher's (in this case Miss Florence Fox's) skill In evoking values from her work in literature and history." From " Festivals and Plays," by Perdval Chubb, Harper k Broi., publishers, New York and London. PROJECTS IN CIVICS, HISTORY, AND LITERATURE. 35 Scene II. The same. Roland enters toUh food, ■ Roland. Oh, mother, see what I have hrought thee. Bertha, And pray, my son, where didst thou find this food? Roland. I saw the king's servants carrying It, and I took it BertJia, Oh, my son, my son, thou hast done wrong. Roland, But why should we starve when Charlemagne has plenty? Berths. What will Charlemagne say? He will surely banish thee. Roland, Do not worry, mother. Charlemagne will not harm me. Bertha. But, oh, Roland, Roland, my boy, Charlemagne hath power ; he could take thee from me. Roland, I am not afraid of that, mother. Nothing shall separate us. Bertha. Charlemagne can be kind, but he can be very cruel, too. {Sighs.) Roland. Dear mother— didst thou ever know him, mother? Bertha, Yea, my son, I knew him well in the long ago, in the long ago. Roland, Oh, mother, why sighest thou? Bertha, I sigh at the thoughts of long ago when I was happy. Roland, I would that I were a man, then I could give thee a beautiful home and make thee happy. (Enter OUver.) Oliver, Roland, the knights, Charlemagne's knights, are coming for thee. Bertha, Oh, Roland, I said they would punish thee. (Enter knights.) Servant. My lord, this is the boy who took the food. OUver, Do not harm him. My father shall pay for the food. Turpm, Nay, not so, young Oliver. The king demands the boy. Bertha, Oh, Roland, Roland, what shall I do without thee? Turpin, (Kindly.) Good woman, the king may pardon him.- Bertha, Oh, take him not away — I know I shall never see him more. Oanelon, Come, Turpin ; too long we stay ; the king awaits us. Bertha, Oh, good sir, can ye not pity me, can ye not help me? Oerier. Come, come, the king doth wait. I fain would end this business. Bertha, How hard ye are to me and mine. Oh, what shall I do without my Roland? Roland. Can ye not leave me with my mother? Who will care for her when I am gone? Oliver. I will care for her, gentle Roland; do not fear for her; look to your- self, dear friend. Roland. How can I leave thee, mother, so sad thou art, dear mother? Oliver. (To Turpin.) Oh, Sir Knight, does not some pity for this poor woman stir thee? Turpin. Nay, Oliver, thou must not seek to change a king*s command; he bade us fetch the boy. We must obey him. Oliver. Then I must seek my father — surely he will help us, Roland. Roland. (As the knights lead him away,) Farewell, dear mother; do not grieve; I shall see thee soon again. (Roland goes off wUh the knights.) Bertha. (Wringing her hands.) What will Charlemagne do? How will he punish my noble boy? Oh, if I should dare to tell him who I am it might gain pardon for my Roland. 'Twere better ttkuu to try than to do nothing. I will away to the king. 36 MAJOR PROJECTS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. I ACT II. Scene I. Table on the vUlage green; Charlemagne and knights about it. Adelaide, Oh, father, why hast thon sent for this beggar-lad? Do not punish him. Thon hast food to spare. Charlemagne. I seek the lad for other cause than that he took the food. Last night I dreamed, and it doth trouble me. I fain would know what meaneth It. Berthaide. Oh, dearest father, tell us of this dream. Charlemagne. I saw a beggar-lad — ^a hungry look was in his eyes. They still do haunt me. Scene II. Bcene and character the tame. Duke Ogier. {Springing up.) Ah, here's the rascal who took the food. Oovemor. {HoitUy.) Not so, my lord; 'tis my good son, my Oliver. {To Oliver.) How now, my son? What message hast thou? Thy mother, is she ill? OUver. Nay, not so, good father. I come to speak for Roland. Oovemor. Thou must not come before the king with thy own business. Haste thee away. {Aside.) So 'twas the beggar-boy who took the food. Charlemagne. Nay, let the lad speak. What sayeth he? Oovemor. I crave his pardon, my lord. Twas his friend who took the food — a beggar-boy whom he doth love most truly. Charlenvagne. Speak out, my lad; what aayest thou? Oliver. Oh, sire, if thou but knew how poor Roland is, and how his mother suffers! The only food she hath he bringeth her. Charlemagne. And so he taketh mine. Tis wrong to steal, is't not? Hast ever heard it said, " Thou shalt not steal "? Oliver. {Sobbing.) Ah, my lord, but they were starving. {Enter Turpin.) Turpin. My lord, we have the lad who took the food. 'Twere some excuse ; he took it for his mother. Charlemiogne. So thou wonldst beg a gentle sentence for him, my good Tur- pin? And this boy but now was pleading for him. It seems a beggar-boy can hold a friend. Turpin. Aye, my lord, he is a goodly lad, and his mother is most sad to look upon. {Enter Oonekm and Gerier with Roland.) Oerier. Here's the knave, my lord, who hath so far upset this morning's business. Charlemagne. The lad ! the lad 1 the very lad — 'twas he I saw (n my dream. Roland. Most gracious king, I am the lad who took the food. So long, my lord, have we been hungry — so often, sire, have we been starving. Our only home a cave ; our only food what OUver brings. How can I bear my mother's tears? How can I see my mother suffer? 'Twas for her I took the food. I then have eaten none of it {Bertha rushes in.) Bertha. I come to plead for my boy, my Roland. Be gentle with him, oh, most gracious emperor. He is noble, he is brave. I pray thee do not harm him. Charlemagne. My dream! my dream! Do not we^ good woman. Come close and let me see thee. Bertha. {As he looks at her.) Dost thou not know me^ Charlemagne? Oh, brother, dost thou not forgive thy sister Bertha? All. Sister! Bertha! PROJECTS IN CIVICS, HISTORY, AND LITERATURE. 37 Oliver. Roland, Roland, didst thou hear? Roland. Mother, mother, Is't true, dear mother? Bertha. Yes, 'tis true, i8*t not, my brother. CharlevMiffne, Tis true, gentle sister. And where is thy false l^night Mllon? Bertha. He left us long ago, when Roland here was but a babe. Adelaide. Ah, dear Aunt Bertha, glad am I to see thee. Berthaide. Aye, dear aunt, glad I am to see thee. Knights. All hail the Princess Bertha. All hail the young Prince Roland! Charlemagne. (To Roland.) The beggar-boy a royal prince! Yet thou wast never poor, so rich thou art in friends. Who owns a friend like this lad Oliver hath that which gold can never buy. I, too, would have thee for my friend, young Roland. What sayst thou? Roland. So long as I shall live, most gracious king and dearest uncle. Richard the Old. Our song, our song — ''The Sword of Charlemagne." Gerier. For Roland, too, shall follow " The Sword of Charlemange." {All sing the '* Sword of Charlemagne.") Where'er he leads we follow To honor and to fame. We follow, ever follow. The Sword of Charlemagne. Where'er he leads we follow. Thro' Norway and thro' Spain. We follow, ever follow. The Sword of Charlemagne. VALX7E8 OF THE PLAT, HOW CHABLEHAGNE FOUND BOLAND. I. Historical. 1. Manners and customs of the time: (a) Dress : King in crimson robe with ermine cape and gold crown. Knights in black skirts and capes with silver helmets. Each carries a black shield with silver cross, and long black spear with silver tip. Roland in peasant dress, a black smock and short trousers. . Oliver in dull green embroidered sooock and short trousers. Tnrpln in cardinal's scarlet robe and cap. Bertha in loose gray dress and long gray veil with silver filet. The governor in hose and doublet of dull blue, embroidered. Lords in hose and doublet of white and silver. Pages in white and green, short skirts and pointed caps. Servants in long brown smocks. Daughters in loose pink and yellow robes, white veils, and gold fllet. (&) Food: Fruit and fish and venison, with wine. (c) Modes of warfare: Combats with long spears and defense with shields. id) Modes of travel: Usually on horseback, and in palanquins. 2. Biographical. Character study of important persons: (a) Charlemagne, the king; (6) Roland, the peasant; ic) Oliver, the governor's son; (d) Ber- tha, Charlemagne's sister; (a) Tnrpln, the cardinal; (f) knigAts, Gerien, Gerier, etc. 3. Ethical lessons: (a) Friendship (Oliver's defense of Roland) ; (b) Cour- age (Roland's defense); (e) love (Bertha's defense). II. Literary. 1. Language (written) : Play written by children for home work. 2. Language (oral) : Discussions of play and parts read by pupils. '38 MAJOR PROJECTS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 8. Language training: The parts, written at home, were submitted to the entire school for criticism, and the best was selected for permanent form. This created much discussion of literary forms and exercise of literary discrimina- tion: (a) dialogue; (b) dramatic form of expression; and (c) analysis of characters and what each might say under certain conditions. 4. Reading : The parts were read by different pupils before the entire school, and the best reader selected by vote to take the part in the play. The effect of these reading exercises was felt in all the oral reading done thereafter by this group. 5. Song : Verses of the song were composed by pupils in the same way. 6. Music: After the verses were decided upon, the music was composed by the same method. III. Manual trainmg, 1. Utility motive: Making of weapons In the sloyd room for use in the play aroused interest and enthusiasm. 2. Educational: It also led to an enthusiastic study of modes of warfare, weapons used, etc. 8. Technical training: {a) Spear — ^long handles of wood painted black and sharp point covered with tin foil; (&) shields — ^large wooden shields painted black with silver cross; (o) helmets made of tin, cut and held in form by rivets. IV. Ethical, 1. Cooperation: A disorganized group brought into complete unity through their interest in this play. 2. Altruism : The group selected by vote the best papers for permanent form and all personal preferences were subordinated to the general good. In the same way the prominent characters were selected by popular vote. 8. Ethical lessons: Without doubt the lessons of loyalty and service and filial affection which the play sets forth had its effect upon the Individual members of the group^ leaving a vivid impression which the ordinary study of historical characters can never do. 4. Color scheme: Act I. The dark forest as a background. Roland in black, Bertha in gray. Act II. Two long tables with ends wide apart at the front of the stage and extending back to meet in the c^iter. Charlemagne seated on a dais at the middle back with flowing white hair and a long white beard, wearing a crimson cloak, an ermine cape, and a gold crown. At his feet sit the two pages in white and gre^i on either corner of the dais. His daughters, one on either side of their father, in pale pink and pale yellow, long veils bound with gold filet. At the outer side of the table on the right are seated the knights in black and silver, at the left the governor in embroidered blue, the cardinal in scarlet, and the lords in white and silver. Harmony and contrasts of color in costumes: Brown (servants) with white and green (pages) ; gray (Bertha) and black (Roland) with dull green, em- broidered (Oliver) ; black and silver (knights) with dull blue, embroidered (governor) ; scarlet (cardinal) with white and silver (lords and dukes). The Charlemagne group at center back, raised slightly above the others, bring the entire color scheme to a focus at the center of the stage. Crimson and white and gold (Charlemagne) ; tinted pink and yellow with gold (the daughters) ; white and green, just below (the pages). It is difficult to convey an adequate impression of the beauty of this scene both in color and in the flash of movement, the Intensity of action and the pathetic appeal of the Emperor's banished sister and her young son, Roland. PROJECTS IN cnnoSy history, and uterature. 89 VI. A PROJECT IN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. A HI8TQBICAL PAGEANT: THE MAY FESTIVAL. A SCHOOL PROJBCT UNDBR THX PBB80NAL DfRBCTION OF PBRCtYAL CHUBB. f Song : " Ye Lads and Lasaea.* They return with garlands to the Tillage and perform the rites of purifica- tion and invoke the Spirit of Fertility; beating the village bounds; scattering the spirit of prosperity through field and fold, orchard and pasture, streets and houses; decking doors and thresholds; blessing the wells and fountains; and then they unite in a garland dance. Song : " Arise. Ye Maids ! " The Pageant to the Queen. A tucket summons the villagers to the market place where they form in procession. Song : ** Come, Ye Young men, Haste Along ! " Progress to the green: Sherwood foresters; the May Queen, her attendants and train; the maypole dancers and peasants; the. villagers, swords- men, and dancers. Song : '* Come, Lasses and Lads." The Enthronement of the May Queai. The Lord of the May presents the Lady of the May with the Insignia of office: Wreath, crown, and scepter. Song: "Give to Our Lady o* May." Homage to the Queen by her followers, including: The Harbingers; the Sun and the Robin ; the Garland of the Harvest May or Spirit of Plenty ; Spring and the Flower Maids and Heralds; the Queen and the Bearers of her Insignia ; Lords and Ladies. Jack-in-the-Green and the Sweeps; Mother Goose, her faithful bird, and her brood — ^Boy Blue, Bo Peep, Mistress Mary, Miss Muffet, Simple Simon and the Pieman, the Queen of Hearts, Jack and Jill, Mother Hubbard, Jack Sprat and his Wife, April Fool. Dance of the Ijords and Ladies. Song : "Hafl ! Hail ! Sweet May !" Sporte and Revels on the Green. 1. Robin Hood and His Sherwood Forestera Robin Hood and his companions — ^Maid Marian, Little John, Fair Bllen, Allen-a-Dale, Will Scarlet, and Friar Tuck — ^greet the Queen. The Hobby-Horse causes trouble. Robin summons the men and maids of the merry greenwood, who march before the Queen. Song: "Robin Hood and Little John.*' They display their prowess with the bow in an archery exercise; then retire, dancing a woodland May dance. PROJECTS IN CIVICS, HISTORY, AND LITERATURE. 41 Song : " Bow and Arrow Bearing, lo ! the Archer." II. Maypole Rites and Dances. The peasant dancers bedeck and do honor to the mayi>ole; then danoe around it. Song : ** Come, Lassies and Lads.** III. The Fencing Combat and the Tumbling. Salutation of the Queen by the rival villagers. Song : " Lavender's Blue, Dilly, Dilly." The challenge (Orange). The acceptance (Lemon). The C!ombat. The rivals, in token of good-fellowship, give a display of their athletic agility before the Queen in pyramid formations and tumbling. They then greet the maids of the rival villages, who unite in friendly dances— the Morris Dance, the Faithful Shepherd, and the Tienchmore. Reassembling of Players and Recessional. Song : " Hail ! Hail ! Sweet May," VII. MAKING A GROCERY STORE. A THIRI>-GRADE PROJECT IN 8LOYD AND NUMBER. This was a community project in which each child in the grade had some part. The class visited a grocery store frequently during the process of the work. They used a dry goods box, 22 inches long, 16 inches wide, and 10 inches deep. It was lined with manila paper and stood upright on one of its longer sides. The shelves, of thin pieces of wood, were fitted to the back of the box in length and were each 2^ inches wide. The lower shelf was 3^ inches from the floor, and they were all li inches apart. The counter was made by nailing narrow pieces of wood like the Selves into a bpx measuring 1 foot long, 3 inches high, and 3 inches wide. It was sand- papered to make it smooth. The showcase, made of small pieces of glass, was fastened together with passe partout paper and looked like a glass box when finished, measuring 3 by 3 by 2 inches. The l;>alances were made of wood. The upright was a square stick of wood one-half inch on each side and 4 inches high, with a standard nailed to the lower end and a notch out in the upper end. The standard was a square block of wood measuring 2 inches on each side. The beam was a small rod of wood measuring one-eighth inch in diameter. The measures were made of square pieces of manila paper tied at each comer with a string and the strings tied together and tacked onto each end of the beam. The balances were painted black and were set on the counter. The outside of the box was painted white and the shelves white. Moldings were nailed on 42 MAJOB PROJECTS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. the front edges of the box and these were painted red. A sign over the store was painted white with a red molding at the top. The grocer^s name, Mr. Dooley, by unanimous choice, was painted on the sign in^black letters. Paper cutting and pasting, — Bushel baskets and pails were cut and pasted out of manlla paper and drawing paper. Modeling and water-color painting, — Fruit cans, candy boxes, breakfast-food boxes, candy, flour sacks, cheese, apples, and ];>otatoe8 were modeled out of day and painted with appropriate colors. The cans and boxes were placed on the shelves, the candy in the show case, the cheese on the counter, and the bags of flour and baskets of apples and potatoes were around the counter on the floor. Mr. Dooley and a customer, Mrs. Jones, were modeled in clay and painted. Mr. Dooley stands behind the counter, and Mr& Jones, with her basket on her arm, is buying her groceries. Ijonguage, — Price lists and names of commodities were written after each visit to a grocery. Orders for groceries were written and delivered to Mr. Dooley, who was impersonated by one of the pupils. Bills were sent out and collected ; paper money was made by the class and used in buying and selling. Reading lessons. — ^ESach step of the work was used as a basis for reading. These were development lessons written on the board by the teacher at the dictation of the dass. They were read from the board and copied into their language books. Later they were typed and bound with a series of similar lessons into permanent form and used as^a project reader. Vm. MAKING BREAD IN SCHOOL. A PROJECT IN COOKING. There is no project in the elementary school that may be of greater value to the children than lessons in cooking plain^ wholesome food. This project on bread making is given here because it has been worked out in primary rooms of first and second grade children many times and nev^ fails to become a valuable lesson both to the pupil and to the family at home. The dlfilculty of baking bread in an ordinary schoolroom may be overcome if there are gas Jets or electric fixtures in the room. Then a gas plate and oven or an electric grill and oven may be borrowed at home by some pupil and brought to school for this lesson. There is always an advantage in having children watch thet process of. baking which, of course, they miss if the bread is loaned out to bake. The simplest method possible is given in this lesson, in order to remove any difficulty which the teacher mi^t fear in attempting this project. The teacher gives two pupils 40 cents and sends them to the grocery store to buy flour, milk, and yeast. She asks them to bring back the change knd requests the class to figure out how much money will be left when the mate- rials are bought. Have them make out a bill in correct form and compare it with the grocer's bill when the children return from their errand. To groceries for bread: 4 pounds flour @ $0.06 $0.24 1 cake yeast @ .05 .05 1 pint of milk @ .08 .08 .37 By cash .40 Credit . 08 PROJECTS IN CIVICS, HISTORY, AND LITERATURE. 43 The teacher can borrow a pan from some one who lives near the schoolhouse, and set the bread overnight. Let the children stir the milk, diluted one-half with water, into the floor, and also add the yeast, dissolved in half a glass of water. A cqpoonful of salt and a tablespoonfal of sugar should he mixed with the flour before the wetting is added. These the children can bring from home. In the morning the sponge will be ready to knead. Have the children wash their hands carefully, and then give each one a handful of dough, which has been stirred in the pan to a stiff sponge. If possible, have the children stir the dough. The dough can be laid on each desk on a large sheet of drawing paper or some of the children can work around a table if a large one is in the room. (See picture.) If a little flour is first sprinkled on the paper the children will have no difficulty in kneading the bread. Have the children write their names on long, narrow strips of paper before they begin to knead the bread. When the little loaves are ready for the pan let each child place the strip of paper containing his name under the loaf which he has prepared. The name, written on the upper end of the strip, should be in plain view. Have ready some biscuit tins, also borrowed, well greased with lard or butter, and have the children lay their loaves of dough in the pans side by side, with the' name of each pupil by his loaf. These loaves will be about the size of the rolls which we buy at the bakery. When the loaves are nearly light and ready for baking send them to some house near the school where you have already made arrangements to have them baked. Any mother of one of the pupils will be glad to add the little tins of school bread' to her baking if you arrange to send them over on her baking day. When the bread is baked and is returned to the school wrap each little loaf , in a white paper napkin and send it home by the pupil who made it. o Harvard University, Library of the Graduate Sclioi ADDITIONAL COPIES or THia PUBUCATION MAT BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OP DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTINO OPIICE WASHINQTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY CONTENTS. Page. Introduction 1 Malnutrition 1 Anthropometric method of diagnosis 2 The grading of nutritional defects 2 The extent of malnutrition 3 Causes of defective nutrition 4 The effects of malnutrition 5 A brief history of school feeding 5 The practice of school feeding 8 Experience of France in school feeding 10 Rural-school lunch 25 St)ecial feeding , 26 School feeding as a remedy for defective nutrition 29 Other methods of attacking defective nutrition 80 Nutritional education in clinics for children 33 Teachers College — Columbia University 33 The Bureau of Educational Experiments 34 The rOle of school feeding in the malnutrition program 34 What type of school feeding is most effective 35 The educational aspect 36 To what extent ought the lunch service be self-supporting? 36 The provision of free meals 36 The public control of school feeding 37 Bibliography 38 ni Harvard University, library of the Graduate School of Education MALNUTRITION AND SCHOOL FEEDING. INTRODUCTION. One of the most congpieuons by-products of the public-school system is a quickened interest in the physical welfare of the school child. Practically the entire population of the Nation between the ages of 6 and 15 is gathered to- gether for from 6 to 10 months of the year into a great community to receive public instruction. This segregation of the youth of the Nation is beset, from the point of view of public health, with advantages and disadvantages. The chief disadvantages are that the close personal contact of so many individuals facilitates the spread of contagious disease and that the educational process itself places a severe physical strain on growing diUdren. The chief ad- vantages are that it fajciUtates the regulation of health conditions and that it brings to the attention of the proper authorities physically subnormal children who would otherwise remain undiscovered. Malnutrition is a term used to indicate a general condition of less than normal physical and m^ital vigor (26q.) While the causes of malnutrition are many, incorrect or inadequate diet appears all too often as one of the causes ; hence school feeding, which affords not only an opportunity to supplement the home food supply but also to teach correct food habits, becomes a most valuable agency in combating the evil. This monograph is presented with a desire to aid communities in making school feeding a really effective social agency. In order to determine the true relation between malnutrition and school feeding, we shall first consider briefly the problem of malnutrition and, second, the development and present status of school feeding both in New York City and other communities in relation to this defect MALNUTRITION. Malnutrition has received most careful study in Qreat Britain; and it is to Great Britain, therefore, that we must turn for the most authoritative and convincing statements on the subject. Nowhere have the difficulties inherent in the problem been more clearly stated than in the rei>ort of Sir George Newman, chief medical officer of the board of education of England {23) : Sound nutrition is a general physiological condition which connotes a healthy *body in all respects and the good tone and health of its various constituent parts, its brain and nervous system, its muscular, digestive, circulatory, and lymphatic systems. All this means that we must take a wide and compre- hensive view of nutrition, which is a state revealing itself in a variety of signs and symptoms. Thus, in endeavoring to estimate a child's nutrition or its opposite (viz, malnutrition), we must think not only of bulk and weight of body, but of ratio of stature to weight ; of the general balance and " substance '* of the body and of its carriage and bearing ; of the firmness of the tissues ; of the presence of subcutaneous fat ; of the condition and process of the develop- ^ Reference is made by number (italic) to " Bibliography,** p. 38. 2 MALNUTEITION AKD SCHOOL FEEDING. ment of the muscular system ; of the condition of the skin and the redness of the mucous membranes ; of the nervous and muscular system as expressed in listlessness or alertness, in apathy or keenness ; of the condition of the various systems of the body, and, speaking generally, of the relative balance and coordi- nation of the functions of digestion, absorption, and assimilation of food as well as of the excretion of waste products. It is obvious that these are data which are likely to lend to a much more reliable opinion than the consideration of any one factor 5or ratio, however expeditiously obtained or convenient in form or practice, and these data will demand a wider as well as a more careful and accurate observation of the whole physique of the child. Nor can an ultimate opinion always be formed at one inspection at any given moment. Por nutrition, like its reverse, malnutrition, is a process and not an event. In regard to diagnosis, therefore, the school medical officer has as yet neither an absolute standard of nutrition nor a single criterion to guide him. He must form a con- sidered and careful opinion on all the facts before him. ANTHROPOMETRIC METHOD OF DIAGNOSIS. The anthropometric method of determining malnutrition is the one most widely used, and in many cases it is used exclusively. Since malnutrition almost in- variably manifests itself In retarded growth, and since the child's height and weight may readily be determined with respect to the normal measurements for his years, this method makes a strong appeal to school medical Inspectors who have not the necessary time to make thorough examinations, and may even be resorted to by those without medical training. It appears that the child's height is less affected by his nutrition than his weight, and there is, therefore, a strong preference for comparing the child's weight with the normal weight for a child of his height, rather than wtth the normal weight for his age. Height is to some extent influenced by nutrition, hence children who are much under height for their age ought to be regarded as suspected cases of malnu- trition unless there Is a known Inherltande of small stature. But deviation from the normal or average rate of growth is not in itself an infallible index of the child's nutrition. Height and weight are determined by heredity factors as well as those of nutrition. The method has value only as a rough sorting out of children apparently in need of nutritional care and is in no sense a substititution for a thorough medical examination where this is possible. THE GRADING OF NUTRITIONAI, DEFECTS. The defect Is relative. Children can not be divided into two mutually ex- clusive classes, the well nourished and the poorly nourished, for the attempt to do so results in an arbitrary division of border-line cases. Dr. Alister MacKenzie, of Dunfermline, Scotland, has worked out a practical method of classification, known as the ''Dunfermline scale." (18) According to this scale all children are divided, with respect to their nutrition, into four groups, as follows: (1) "Excellent" mean6 the nutrition of a healthy child of good social standing. (2) Childr^i whose, nutrition Just falls short of this standard are "good.'* (8) Children "requiring supervision" are on the border line of serious im- pairment. (4) Children " requiring medical treatment" are those whose nutrition is seriously impaired. MALKUTEmOK A2!n> SCHOOL TEEDTSQ. 3 THE EXTENT OF MALNUTRITION. OONFIJCTINa DATA. Since there is in operation no nniform method of diagnosis of the defect of malnutrition, it is not surprising to find a great disparitj in the statistics re- garding it. Indeed, the estimates of ttie prevalence of the deflect ran from 1 per cent to 50 per cent of the school population in communities which are similar in most other respects. One must look with suspicion, therefore, on all estimates or statistics until one has ascertained something of the method of diagnosis and classification. Observers who are relatiyely inexperienced in dealing with the defect are likrty to recognize only the most marked cases; i. e., cases of virtual starvation. The number reported by such observers is, therefore, comparatively small. Under careful and accurate methods of diagnosis, however, which recogniae degrees of the defect, a large number is usually called to attention. This is clearly illustrated in the case of New York City. In that city, before the adoption of the Dunfermline scale, the average annual percentage of school children reported by the department of healUi as undernourished was 4 per cent, while in 1910, the year of the adop-, tion of the Dunfermline method, 16 per cent was reported. As it is un- believable that malnutrition has actually increased to that extent, we must assume that the apparent increase was due to better methods of diagnosis and dassiflcation. It is likely, however, that the proportion of malnutrition found in New York City is fairly indicative of that present in most cities with a large industrial population. DATA OF CABETUL OBSKBVUKS. At the present stage a rough estimate of the extent of malnutrition based on the reports of those authorities who have been most thorough and careful in their methods and in their grasp of the problem is much more satisfactory than conflicting reports from various localities. In Great Britain, where the grading system is universally in vogue, the percentage of school